array:21 [
  "pii" => "X2013251411052052"
  "issn" => "20132514"
  "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
  "estado" => "S300"
  "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
  "documento" => "article"
  "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
  "subdocumento" => "fla"
  "cita" => "Nefrologia (English Version). 2011;31:251-5"
  "abierto" => array:3 [
    "ES" => true
    "ES2" => true
    "LATM" => true
  ]
  "gratuito" => true
  "lecturas" => array:2 [
    "total" => 5369
    "formatos" => array:3 [
      "EPUB" => 306
      "HTML" => 4349
      "PDF" => 714
    ]
  ]
  "Traduccion" => array:1 [
    "es" => array:17 [
      "pii" => "X0211699511052055"
      "issn" => "02116995"
      "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
      "estado" => "S300"
      "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
      "documento" => "article"
      "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
      "subdocumento" => "fla"
      "cita" => "Nefrologia. 2011;31:251-5"
      "abierto" => array:3 [
        "ES" => true
        "ES2" => true
        "LATM" => true
      ]
      "gratuito" => true
      "lecturas" => array:2 [
        "total" => 29730
        "formatos" => array:3 [
          "EPUB" => 299
          "HTML" => 28184
          "PDF" => 1247
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:10 [
        "idiomaDefecto" => true
        "titulo" => "El papel de los inhibidores de mTOR en las enfermedades renales"
        "tienePdf" => "es"
        "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es"
        "paginas" => array:1 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "paginaInicial" => "251"
            "paginaFinal" => "255"
          ]
        ]
        "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
          "en" => array:1 [
            "titulo" => "The role of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases"
          ]
        ]
        "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
          "es" => true
        ]
        "contienePdf" => array:1 [
          "es" => true
        ]
        "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
          "original" => 0
          "multimedia" => array:8 [
            "identificador" => "fig1"
            "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
            "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
            "mostrarFloat" => true
            "mostrarDisplay" => false
            "copyright" => "Elsevier España"
            "figura" => array:1 [
              0 => array:4 [
                "imagen" => "10947_108_16560_es_10947_f1.jpg"
                "Alto" => 396
                "Ancho" => 517
                "Tamanyo" => 84495
              ]
            ]
            "descripcion" => array:1 [
              "es" => "Estructura química de la rapamicina."
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "autores" => array:1 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "autoresLista" => "J.C. Rodríguez Pérez"
            "autores" => array:1 [
              0 => array:2 [
                "Iniciales" => "J.C."
                "apellidos" => "Rodríguez Pérez"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
      "Traduccion" => array:1 [
        "en" => array:9 [
          "pii" => "X2013251411052052"
          "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
          "estado" => "S300"
          "subdocumento" => ""
          "abierto" => array:3 [
            "ES" => true
            "ES2" => true
            "LATM" => true
          ]
          "gratuito" => true
          "lecturas" => array:1 [
            "total" => 0
          ]
          "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
          "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052052?idApp=UINPBA000064"
        ]
      ]
      "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052055?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      "url" => "/02116995/0000003100000003/v0_201502091414/X0211699511052055/v0_201502091414/es/main.assets"
    ]
  ]
  "itemSiguiente" => array:17 [
    "pii" => "X2013251411052044"
    "issn" => "20132514"
    "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.May.10959"
    "estado" => "S300"
    "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
    "documento" => "article"
    "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
    "subdocumento" => "fla"
    "cita" => "Nefrologia (English Version). 2011;31:256-9"
    "abierto" => array:3 [
      "ES" => true
      "ES2" => true
      "LATM" => true
    ]
    "gratuito" => true
    "lecturas" => array:2 [
      "total" => 3606
      "formatos" => array:3 [
        "EPUB" => 277
        "HTML" => 2721
        "PDF" => 608
      ]
    ]
    "en" => array:9 [
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
      "titulo" => "Establishing and controlling chronic renal failure treatment costs. A pressing need"
      "tienePdf" => "en"
      "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en"
      "paginas" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "paginaInicial" => "256"
          "paginaFinal" => "259"
        ]
      ]
      "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
        "es" => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conocer y controlar los costes del tratamiento de la insuficiencia renal crónica. Una necesidad inaplazable"
        ]
      ]
      "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "contienePdf" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "autores" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "autoresLista" => "R. Martín Hernández"
          "autores" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "Iniciales" => "R."
              "apellidos" => "Martín Hernández"
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
    "Traduccion" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:9 [
        "pii" => "X0211699511052047"
        "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.May.10959"
        "estado" => "S300"
        "subdocumento" => ""
        "abierto" => array:3 [
          "ES" => true
          "ES2" => true
          "LATM" => true
        ]
        "gratuito" => true
        "lecturas" => array:1 [
          "total" => 0
        ]
        "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
        "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052047?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      ]
    ]
    "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052044?idApp=UINPBA000064"
    "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052044/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  ]
  "itemAnterior" => array:17 [
    "pii" => "X2013251411052060"
    "issn" => "20132514"
    "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10940"
    "estado" => "S300"
    "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
    "documento" => "article"
    "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
    "subdocumento" => "fla"
    "cita" => "Nefrologia (English Version). 2011;31:247-50"
    "abierto" => array:3 [
      "ES" => true
      "ES2" => true
      "LATM" => true
    ]
    "gratuito" => true
    "lecturas" => array:2 [
      "total" => 8342
      "formatos" => array:3 [
        "EPUB" => 306
        "HTML" => 7292
        "PDF" => 744
      ]
    ]
    "en" => array:10 [
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
      "titulo" => "How to Treat Corticosteroid-Resistant Idiopathic Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis?"
      "tienePdf" => "en"
      "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en"
      "paginas" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "paginaInicial" => "247"
          "paginaFinal" => "250"
        ]
      ]
      "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
        "es" => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "¿Cómo tratar la glomeruloesclerosis focal y segmentaria idiopática corticorresistente?"
        ]
      ]
      "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "contienePdf" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
        "original" => 0
        "multimedia" => array:8 [
          "identificador" => "fig1"
          "etiqueta" => "Tab.  1"
          "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
          "mostrarFloat" => true
          "mostrarDisplay" => false
          "copyright" => "Elsevier España"
          "figura" => array:1 [
            0 => array:4 [
              "imagen" => "10940_108_17294_en_t110940.jpg"
              "Alto" => 416
              "Ancho" => 600
              "Tamanyo" => 158979
            ]
          ]
          "descripcion" => array:1 [
            "en" => "Causes of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "autores" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "autoresLista" => "F. Rivera Hernández"
          "autores" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "Iniciales" => "F."
              "apellidos" => "Rivera Hernández"
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
    "Traduccion" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:9 [
        "pii" => "X0211699511052063"
        "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10940"
        "estado" => "S300"
        "subdocumento" => ""
        "abierto" => array:3 [
          "ES" => true
          "ES2" => true
          "LATM" => true
        ]
        "gratuito" => true
        "lecturas" => array:1 [
          "total" => 0
        ]
        "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
        "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052063?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      ]
    ]
    "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052060?idApp=UINPBA000064"
    "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052060/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  ]
  "en" => array:12 [
    "idiomaDefecto" => true
    "titulo" => "The role of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases"
    "tieneTextoCompleto" => true
    "paginas" => array:1 [
      0 => array:2 [
        "paginaInicial" => "251"
        "paginaFinal" => "255"
      ]
    ]
    "autores" => array:1 [
      0 => array:3 [
        "autoresLista" => "J.C. Rodríguez Pérez"
        "autores" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "Iniciales" => "J.C."
            "apellidos" => "Rodríguez Pérez"
            "email" => array:1 [
              0 => "jrodperd@gobiernodecanarias.org"
            ]
            "referencia" => array:1 [
              0 => array:2 [
                "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>"
                "identificador" => "affa"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "afiliaciones" => array:1 [
          0 => array:3 [
            "entidad" => "Servicio de Nefrología, Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria   "
            "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>"
            "identificador" => "affa"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:1 [
        "titulo" => "El papel de los inhibidores de mTOR en las enfermedades renales"
      ]
    ]
    "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
      "original" => 0
      "multimedia" => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "fig1"
        "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg"
            "Alto" => 458
            "Ancho" => 600
            "Tamanyo" => 108667
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "Chemical structure of rapamycin"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">INTRODUCTION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Signal transduction in different types of cells often involves conditional or constitutive activation of receptor tyrosine kinases&#44; which trigger multiple cytoplasmic kinases&#46; Such signalling pathways can operate independently&#44; in parallel&#44; and&#47;or through interconnections that promote different diseases to develop&#46; The most important signalling pathways are phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase &#40;PI3K&#41;&#44; protein kinase C &#40;PKC&#41; and mitogen-activated protein kinase &#40;MAPK&#41;&#47;Ras&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">mTOR PROTEIN</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">mTOR &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">M</span>ammalian <span class="elsevierStyleBold">T</span>arget <span class="elsevierStyleBold">o</span>f <span class="elsevierStyleBold">R</span>apamycin&#41; is a 289-kDa serine&#47;threonine protein kinase&#46; The TOR family of proteins has pleiotropic functions&#44; and participates in the regulation of the initiation of mRNA transcription and protein translation in response to intracellular concentrations of amino acids &#40;AA&#41; and other essential nutrients&#46; It is involved in the organisation of actin cytoskeleton&#44; membrane trafficking&#44; protein degradation&#44; PKC signalling and ribosome biogenesis&#46; mTOR regulates essential signalling pathways and is involved in coupling growth stimuli and cell-cycle progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are two complexes that contain mTOR&#58; a rapamycin-sensitive complex &#40;mTORC1&#41;&#44; which is defined by its interaction with the protein raptor &#40;regulatory-associated protein of mTOR&#41;&#44; and a rapamycin-insensitive complex &#40;mTORC2&#41;&#44; defined by its interaction with rictor &#40;rapamycin-insensitive companion of mTOR&#41;&#46; mTOR is a key kinase which acts downstream of the activation of PI3K&#46; Much evidence supports the hypothesis that mTOR is the key for cellular catabolism and anabolism&#44; determining whether cells&#44; and in particular carcinogenic cells&#44; grow and proliferate&#46; Furthermore&#44; mTOR regulates apoptosis&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">mTOR&#44; in the shape of the two signalling complexes&#44; cited as mTORC1 and mTORC2 with their two different proteins&#44; raptor and rictor&#44; establish two different mTOR pathways&#46; The raptor-mTOR pathway &#40;mTORC1&#41; regulates cellular growth &#40;cellular mass accumulation&#41; and proliferation through P70S6K and 4E-BP&#46; It responds to nutrients and growth factors&#44; partly due to regulators like TSC1&#47;TSC2 &#40;tuberous sclerosis complex 1&#58; hamartin&#59; tuberous sclerosis complex 2&#58; tuberin&#41; and Rheb &#40;a Ras family GTPase&#41;&#46; mTOR &#40;mTORC1&#41; is phosphorylated by AKT &#40;also called protein kinase B-PKB&#41; through inactivation of the tuberous sclerosis complex &#40;TSC&#41; and is directly activated by Rheb&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The rictor-mTOR &#40;mTORC2&#41; complex regulates AKT&#47;PKB&#44; PKC&#945;&#44; Rho&#47;rac&#44; to control cell polarity and the cytoskeleton&#46; Growth factors and AA activate AKT and mTOR through PI3K&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are transcription factors that could be activated or inhibited through AKT phosphorylation&#46; AKT activates the NF-kB transcription factor&#44; which increases the transcription of antiapoptotic genes&#46; The NF-kB transcription factor is the central mediator of the immune response&#44; inflammatory response and cell survival response&#46; Following its activation&#44; IKK phosphorylates IkB&#44; resulting in their ubiquitination and degradation in the proteasome&#46; This exposes the NF-kB nuclear localisation sites and allows it to translocate to the nucleus to induce antiapoptotic gene expression&#46; Growth factors&#44; such as the vascular endothelial growth factor &#40;VEGF&#41;&#44; activate NF-kB and protect against apoptosis&#46; On the other hand&#44; NF-kB inhibition sensitises the cell to a wide variety of proapoptotic stimuli&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN ACUTE RENAL FAILURE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Regeneration and restoration of the morphology and renal function partly depends on the capacity of the remaining viable kidney tubule cells to proliferate and restore the damaged epithelium&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span> mTOR is an ubiquitous kinase and its inhibition by rapamycin also blocks proliferation&#44; including cells in the kidney&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span> mTOR plays an important role in the regeneration and repair process following an experimental acute kidney injury&#46; The mTOR activity is low or absent in the normal kidney&#44; but increases significantly following an ischaemia-reperfusion process&#46; Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin delays renal recovery-repair&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The mTOR pathway plays an important role in the mechanisms that are involved in chronic kidney disease &#40;CKD&#41; progression caused by diabetes&#44; for instance&#46; Rapamycin reduces interstitial inflammation&#44; fibrosis and loss of kidney function associated with CKD progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Several studies have shown why it is important for mTOR to be activated in physiological and pathological forms of renal hypertrophy and other organs&#44; including hypertrophy of the diabetic nephropathy &#40;DN&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> This phenomenon contributes to podocyte damage and progressive loss of renal function&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> Furthermore&#44; upon mTOR activation&#44; an increase in matrix protein synthesis will contribute to glomerular basement membrane thickening and the accumulation of the mesangial matrix&#44; which are characteristic of DN&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> mTOR activation in diabetes is&#44; at least&#44; partly caused by hyperglycaemia via AKT activation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> Rapamycin has not only reduced mTOR activity in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo </span>models&#44; but it has also reduced the characteristic DN changes mentioned above&#44; and it is associated with a reduction in albuminuria&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Similar phenomena can be observed in non-diabetic CKD&#44; with an increase in the proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokine expression&#44; interstitial inflammatory cell infiltration and renal fibrosis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span> Rapamycin treatment for membranous glomerulonephritis in rat models reduces all of these phenomena&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease &#40;ADPKD&#41; is a genetic disease characterised by the formation of multiple cysts within the renal parenchyma&#44; which results in renal failure&#46; It affects up to one case in every 400-1000 newborns&#46; ADPKD is related to PKD1 and PKD2 gene mutations&#44; which are located in chromosomes 16 and 4&#44; respectively&#46; The PKD1 gene codes for the transmembrane protein polycystin-1 &#40;PC1&#41;&#46; It has been reported that this protein is involved in cell-cell adhesion&#44; cell-matrix adhesion&#44; transduction of intracellular signals and polycystin-2 regulation &#40;PC2&#41;&#44; as the PKD2 gene codes for the PC2 protein&#44; which is a calcium channel&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;12</span> The PC1 and PC2 complex is essential for maintaining the physiological phenotype of the tubular epithelial cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The polycystin protein complexes are fundamental for maintaining intracellular calcium homeostasis&#46; All renal tubular epithelial cells &#40;except the interspersed ones&#41; were recently found to have a single primary cilium which has mechanoreceptor and chemoreceptor functions&#46; Stimulation of these cilia increases the intracellular calcium through the PC1 and PC2 complex&#46; Intracellular calcium controls many of the cellular processes&#44; such as proliferation&#46; Therefore&#44; drugs that reduce cyclic adenosine monophosphate &#40;cAMP&#41; or which increase intracellular calcium could treat ADPKD&#46; Calcium is also involved in signalling pathways related with growth factors&#44; activating signalling cascades for some protein kinases&#46; Alongside this&#44; PC1 regulates the mTOR activity &#40;loss of PC1 activity in ADPKD allows significant mTOR activity inside the cyst epithelial cells in mouse and human models&#41;&#44; which would be a therapeutic target&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;13</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">RAPAMYCIN DEVELOPMENT</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin is also called sirolimus&#59; it is a natural antibiotic synthesised by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; hygroscopicus</span>&#46; This bacterium was discovered 30 years ago in earth from Easter Island&#44; Rapa Nui&#44; which is where the name rapamycin came from&#46; It is a lactone initially developed as an antifungal agent&#46; In its purest form&#44; it resembles a white crystalline powder&#44; insoluble in an aqueous solution&#44; but soluble in organic solvents&#46; The chemical structure is shown in Figure 1&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Between 1982 and 1988&#44; rapamycin was developed as an immunosuppressive agent&#46; Thanks to these studies&#44; the mechanism of action of this molecule was clarified&#46; Rapamycin interacts with the immunophilin FK506 binding protein &#40;FKBP12&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>through its methoxy group&#46; The rapamycin-FKBP12 complex is specifically bound to the mTOR protein&#44; inhibiting the effector signalling pathways dependent on said protein&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span> Rapamycin inhibits antigen-induced T cell proliferation and the cytokine-induced proliferative responses&#44; including interleukin-16 &#40;IL-16&#41;&#44; immunoglobulin growth factor &#40;IGF&#41;&#44; etc&#46; It follows the cytochrome CYP450 3A4 pathway as the main system responsible for drug biotransformation&#44; generating inactive metabolites&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A high level of synergism has been shown for this drug with cyclosporin&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46; As such&#44; the dosage for effective immunosuppression is reduced&#44; decreasing the probability of kidney graft rejection and minimising cyclosporine-induced toxicity&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">An important aspect of rapamycin as an immunosuppressant is that it does not produce secondary effects on renal haemodynamics&#46; Treatment with rapamycin maintains glomerular filtration and the renal blood flow both for normal rats and rats with salt depletion or spontaneous hypertension&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span> The renal tissue seems to be protected during rapamycin treatment by an inhibition of the intrarenal angiotensin II cascade&#46; However&#44; rapamycin does produce a dose-dependent tubular toxicity in rats &#40;including hypercalcaemia and hypophosphataemia&#41;&#44; a phenomenon linked to delayed recovery of the tubular epithelial function after injury&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration &#40;FDA&#41; in 1999 as a preventative treatment of acute rejection in combination with cyclosporine and steroids&#46; A year later&#44; the drug was approved by the European Medicines Agency &#40;EMEA&#41; as an alternative to calcineurin antagonists in long-term treatment to prevent graft rejection&#46; Rapamycin&#44; unlike cyclosporine&#44; does not seem to increase the risk of malignancy&#44; but reduces the risk of lymphoproliferative processes after transplantation &#40;reducing AKT levels&#41;&#46; However&#44; rapamycin increases CsA side effects&#58; high blood pressure&#44; acne and hirsutism and has been associated with mild secondary effects such as diarrhoea&#44; tachycardia&#44; oedemas&#44; dyslipidaemia and non-infectious pneumonitis&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In addition to its immunosuppressant capability&#44; rapamycin has been proven to act as a preventative agent on restenosis of the coronary arteries&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span> The hypothetical mechanism responsible for the inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by rapamycin includes&#44; among others&#44; the binding to protein FKBP12&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In another article published in this issue&#44; Dr Cabrera et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> discuss the results of rapamycin treatment on the evolution of angiomyolipomas in a substantial number of patients suffering from tuberous sclerosis &#40;TS&#41; or Pringle-Bourneville disease &#40;this number is considerable taking into account the prevalence of the disease&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The TS complex is a systemic disease&#44; which is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder with a prevalence of one case for every 6000 live births&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span> It is characterised by benign tumours &#40;hamartomas&#41; in multiple organs and systems&#44; including brain&#44; skin&#44; kidney&#44; lungs&#44; heart and retina&#46; Angiomyolipomas are tumours rich in adipose tissue&#44; muscle and blood vessels that may bleed or infiltrate the kidneys causing deterioration of kidney function for up to 80&#37; of patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Mutations that may occur in any of the two TS genes&#44; TSC1 &#40;hamartin&#41; or TSC2 &#40;tuberin&#41; is above 85&#37; for TS patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span> Proteins coded by these two genes form a tumour-suppressive complex&#44; acting through Ras homolog enriched brain protein &#40;Rheb&#41;&#44; which limits mTOR activation &#40;mTORC1&#41;&#46; When TSC1 or TSC2 are deficient&#44; mTORC1<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>is overexpressed constitutively&#44; provoking cellular growth&#44; proliferation and abnormally high protein synthesis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The clinical trial in phase 4 which the above mentioned authors present&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> shows a significant reduction in the volume of angiomyolipomas after as little as six months of rapamycin treatment &#40;55&#46;1&#37; average&#41;&#44; reaching a reduction of 66&#46;3&#37; at 12 months&#46; The reduction of volume of angiomyolipomas seems to be due to the effect of mTOR inhibition and its effect on VEGF&#46; Another interesting point that these authors document in this paper is the possibility of reducing the rapamycin dose once the peak reduction of the angiomyolipomas volume has been achieved&#44; seemingly being at between 12 and 24 months&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20&#44;25</span> However&#44; the treatment must not be withdrawn as that would promote tumour regrowth&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span> Whether the effect of rapamycin would be the same in any type of angiomyolipoma is still unknown&#44; depending on its size and location &#40;unilateral or bilateral&#41;&#46; Furthermore&#44; as there are no genetic studies&#44; we are still unaware if the rapamycin response varies depending on whether it is located in TSC1 or TSC2&#44; given that the phenotype may be different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Only one patient was excluded before 12 months due to reactivation of an erythema nodosum&#46; No changes were found in renal function&#44; as rapamycin plasma levels were maintained constant&#46; Despite the adverse effects cited in the medical literature&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span> the authors found a higher incidence of oral aphtae and dyslipidemia&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> Furthermore&#44; facial angiofibromas in these patients are smaller and not as relevant&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are very few data in the literature on this matter&#44; and those found are isolated and based on some clinical cases<span class="elsevierStyleSup">26 </span>and a trial published in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">New England Journal of Medicine</span> with 25 patients&#44; of which only 20 completed the 12-month follow-up period&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span> None of these references presented genetic studies&#46; Nevertheless&#44; as the authors cited in their article&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> there are several studies being developed in the United States and Europe&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin&#44; through mTOR inhibition&#44; is an alternative therapy for this disease&#46; More studies are needed to define the risks and benefits of long-term rapamycin treatment for this type of genetic disorder&#44; its use as a monotherapy or in combination&#44; and considering location and size of the angiomyolipomas&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KEY CONCEPTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">1&#46; mTOR is an important modulator of several types of kidney diseases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">2&#46; mTOR is activated following acute kidney damage and contributes to renal regeneration and repair&#46; Rapamycin can delay renal recovery and repair&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">3&#46; mTOR plays an important role in the formation and growth of cysts in ADPKD&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">4&#46; Rapamycin may&#44; through different mechanisms&#44; delay the reduction of glomerular filtration in chronic kidney diseases&#44; reducing their progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">5&#46; When used as a monotherapy&#44; rapamycin can be an alternative therapy for preventing the growth of kidney angiomyolipomas in tuberous sclerosis and delay&#47;prevent renal failure&#46; Possible adverse effects of rapamycin must be taken into consideration&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">6&#46; Although intervention on the mTOR complex in progression of chronic kidney diseases may seem straightforward&#44; more studies must be performed to establish this interconnection&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="grande&#47;10947&#95;108&#95;17297&#95;en&#95;f1&#95;10947i&#46;jpg" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"><img src="10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg" alt="Chemical structure of rapamycin"></img></a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Chemical structure of rapamycin</p>"
    "pdfFichero" => "P1-E521-S2951-A10947-EN.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "multimedia" => array:1 [
      0 => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "fig1"
        "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg"
            "Alto" => 458
            "Ancho" => 600
            "Tamanyo" => 108667
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "Chemical structure of rapamycin"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "Bibliography"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:1 [
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:26 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib1"
              "etiqueta" => "1"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Pérez Machín R, Rodríguez Díaz Y, Vega Hernández MC. La ruta mTOR como diana terapéutica. BioCancer 2006;3."
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib2"
              "etiqueta" => "2"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Masoumi A, Reed Gitomer B, Kelleher C, Schrier RW. Potential pharmacological interventions in polycystic kidney disease. Drugs 2007;67:2495-510. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18034588" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            2 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib3"
              "etiqueta" => "3"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lieberthal W, Levine JS. The role of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2493-502. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19875810" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            3 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib4"
              "etiqueta" => "4"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bonventre JV. Dedifferentiation and proliferation of surviving epithelial cells in acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14(Suppl 1):S55-S61. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12761240" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            4 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib5"
              "etiqueta" => "5"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lieberthal W, Fuhro R, Andry CC, Rennke H, Abernathy VE, Koh JS, et al.\u{A0}Rapamycin impairs recovery from acute renal failure: role of cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis of tubular cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2001;281:F693-F706. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11553517" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            5 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib6"
              "etiqueta" => "6"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lee CH, Inoki K, Guan KL. mTOR pathway as a target in tissue hypertrophy. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2007;47:443-67. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16968213" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            6 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib7"
              "etiqueta" => "7"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Hostetter TH. Hyperfiltration and glomerulosclerosis. Semin Nephrol 2003;23:194-9. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12704579" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            7 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib8"
              "etiqueta" => "8"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Kasinath BS, Mariappan MM, Sataranatarajan K, Lee MJ, Feliers D. mRNA translation: Unexplored territory in renal science. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:3281-92. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16959824" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            8 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib9"
              "etiqueta" => "9"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lloberas N, Cruzado JM, Franquesa M, Herrero-Fresneda I, Torras J, Alperovich G, et al.\u{A0}Mammalian target of rapamycin pathway blockade slows progression of diabetic kidney disease in rats. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:1395-404. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16597691" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            9 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib10"
              "etiqueta" => "10"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Eddy AA, Neilson EG. Chronic kidney disease progression. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2964-6. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17035605" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            10 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib11"
              "etiqueta" => "11"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bonegio RG, Fuhro R, Wang Z, Valeri CR, Andry C, Salant DJ, et al.\u{A0}Rapamycin ameliorates proteinuria-associated tubulointerstitial inflammation and fibrosis in experimental membranous nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2063-72. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15917339" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            11 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib12"
              "etiqueta" => "12"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Aguiari G, Trimi V, Bogo M, Mangolini A, Szabadkai G, Pinton P, et al.\u{A0}Novel role for polycystin-1 in modulating cell proliferation through calcium oscillations in kidney cells. Cell Prolif 2008;41:554-73. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18422703" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            12 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib13"
              "etiqueta" => "13"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Shillingford JM, Murcia NS, Larson CH, Low SH, Hedgepeth R, Brown N, et al.\u{A0}The mTOR pathway is regulated by polycystin-1, and its inhibition reverses renal cystogenesis in polycystic kidney disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:5466-71. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16567633" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            13 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib14"
              "etiqueta" => "14"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Baker H, Sidorowicz A, Sehgal SN, Vezina C.\u{A0}Rapamycin (AY-22,989), a new antifungal antibiotic. III. In vitro and in vivo evaluation. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 1978;31:539-45."
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            14 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib15"
              "etiqueta" => "15"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Davies CB, Madden RL, Alexander JW. Effect of a short course of rapamycin, cyclosporin A, and donor-specific transfusion on rat cardiac allograft survival. Transplantation 1993;55:1107-12. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8497890" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:1 [
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [
                          "pii" => "S0140673609619656"
                          "estado" => "S300"
                          "issn" => "01406736"
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            15 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib16"
              "etiqueta" => "16"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Trepanier DJ, Gallant H, Legatt DF, Yatscoff RW. Rapamycin: distribution, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic range investigations: an update. Clin Biochem 1998;31:345-51. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9721433" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:1 [
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [
                          "pii" => "S0735109710027105"
                          "estado" => "S300"
                          "issn" => "07351097"
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            16 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib17"
              "etiqueta" => "17"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "DiJoseph JF, Mihatsch MJ, Sehgal SN. Renal effects of rapamycin in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Transpl Int 1994;7:83-8. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8179808" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            17 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib18"
              "etiqueta" => "18"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Andoh TF, Burdmann EA, Fransechini N, Houghton DC, Bennett WM. Comparison of acute rapamycin nephrotoxicity with cyclosporine and FK506. Kidney Int 1996;50:1110-7. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8887267" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            18 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib19"
              "etiqueta" => "19"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Sousa JE, Sousa AG, Costa MA, Abizaid AC, Feres F. Use of rapamycin-impregnated stents in coronary arteries. Transplant Proc 2003;35:165S-170S. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12742491" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            19 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib20"
              "etiqueta" => "20"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Cabrera López C, Martí T, Catalá V, Torres F, Mateu S, Ballarín Castán J, et al.\u{A0}Efectos de la rapamicina en los angiomiolipomas de pacientes con esclerosis tuberosa. Nefrologia 2011;31(3):292-8. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21629335" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            20 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib21"
              "etiqueta" => "21"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Krueger DA, Franz DN. Current Management of tuberous sclerosis complex. Paediatr Drugs 2008;10:299-313. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18754697" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            21 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib22"
              "etiqueta" => "22"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bissler JJ, Kingswood JC. Renal angiomyolipomata. Kidney Int 2004;66:924-34. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15327383" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            22 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib23"
              "etiqueta" => "23"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Crino PB, Nathanson KL, Henske EP. The tuberous sclerosis complex. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1345-56. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17005952" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            23 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib24"
              "etiqueta" => "24"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Huang J, Manning BD. The TSC1-TSC2 complex: a molecular switchboard controlling cell growth. Biochem J 2008;412:179-90. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18466115" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            24 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib25"
              "etiqueta" => "25"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bissler JJ, McCormack FX, Young LR, Elwing JM, Chuck G, Leonard JM, et al. Sirolimus for angiomyolipoma in tuberous sclerosis complex or lymphangioleiomyomatosis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:140-51. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184959" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            25 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib26"
              "etiqueta" => "26"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Wienecke R, Facler I, Linsenmaier U, Mayer K, Licht T, Kretzler M. Antitumoral activity of rapamycin in renal angiomyolipoma associated with tuberous sclerosis complex. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:E27-E29. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16931204" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
  ]
  "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
  "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052052/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  "Apartado" => array:4 [
    "identificador" => "35428"
    "tipo" => "SECCION"
    "en" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "Editorial Comments"
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
  ]
  "PDF" => "https://static.elsevier.es/multimedia/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052052/v0_201502091638/en/P1-E521-S2951-A10947-EN.pdf?idApp=UINPBA000064&text.app=https://revistanefrologia.com/"
  "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052052?idApp=UINPBA000064"
]
Share
Journal Information

Statistics

Follow this link to access the full text of the article

The role of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases
El papel de los inhibidores de mTOR en las enfermedades renales
J.C.. Rodríguez Péreza
a Servicio de Nefrología, Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria
Read
11645
Times
was read the article
2634
Total PDF
9011
Total HTML
Share statistics
 array:21 [
  "pii" => "X2013251411052052"
  "issn" => "20132514"
  "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
  "estado" => "S300"
  "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
  "documento" => "article"
  "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
  "subdocumento" => "fla"
  "cita" => "Nefrologia &#40;English Version&#41;. 2011;31:251-5"
  "abierto" => array:3 [
    "ES" => true
    "ES2" => true
    "LATM" => true
  ]
  "gratuito" => true
  "lecturas" => array:2 [
    "total" => 5369
    "formatos" => array:3 [
      "EPUB" => 306
      "HTML" => 4349
      "PDF" => 714
    ]
  ]
  "Traduccion" => array:1 [
    "es" => array:17 [
      "pii" => "X0211699511052055"
      "issn" => "02116995"
      "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
      "estado" => "S300"
      "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
      "documento" => "article"
      "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
      "subdocumento" => "fla"
      "cita" => "Nefrologia. 2011;31:251-5"
      "abierto" => array:3 [
        "ES" => true
        "ES2" => true
        "LATM" => true
      ]
      "gratuito" => true
      "lecturas" => array:2 [
        "total" => 29730
        "formatos" => array:3 [
          "EPUB" => 299
          "HTML" => 28184
          "PDF" => 1247
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:10 [
        "idiomaDefecto" => true
        "titulo" => "El papel de los inhibidores de mTOR en las enfermedades renales"
        "tienePdf" => "es"
        "tieneTextoCompleto" => "es"
        "paginas" => array:1 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "paginaInicial" => "251"
            "paginaFinal" => "255"
          ]
        ]
        "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
          "en" => array:1 [
            "titulo" => "The role of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases"
          ]
        ]
        "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
          "es" => true
        ]
        "contienePdf" => array:1 [
          "es" => true
        ]
        "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
          "original" => 0
          "multimedia" => array:8 [
            "identificador" => "fig1"
            "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
            "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
            "mostrarFloat" => true
            "mostrarDisplay" => false
            "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
            "figura" => array:1 [
              0 => array:4 [
                "imagen" => "10947_108_16560_es_10947_f1.jpg"
                "Alto" => 396
                "Ancho" => 517
                "Tamanyo" => 84495
              ]
            ]
            "descripcion" => array:1 [
              "es" => "Estructura qu&#237;mica de la rapamicina&#46;"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "autores" => array:1 [
          0 => array:2 [
            "autoresLista" => "J.C. Rodr&#237;guez P&#233;rez"
            "autores" => array:1 [
              0 => array:2 [
                "Iniciales" => "J.C."
                "apellidos" => "Rodr&#237;guez P&#233;rez"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
      "Traduccion" => array:1 [
        "en" => array:9 [
          "pii" => "X2013251411052052"
          "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10947"
          "estado" => "S300"
          "subdocumento" => ""
          "abierto" => array:3 [
            "ES" => true
            "ES2" => true
            "LATM" => true
          ]
          "gratuito" => true
          "lecturas" => array:1 [
            "total" => 0
          ]
          "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
          "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052052?idApp=UINPBA000064"
        ]
      ]
      "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052055?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      "url" => "/02116995/0000003100000003/v0_201502091414/X0211699511052055/v0_201502091414/es/main.assets"
    ]
  ]
  "itemSiguiente" => array:17 [
    "pii" => "X2013251411052044"
    "issn" => "20132514"
    "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.May.10959"
    "estado" => "S300"
    "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
    "documento" => "article"
    "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
    "subdocumento" => "fla"
    "cita" => "Nefrologia &#40;English Version&#41;. 2011;31:256-9"
    "abierto" => array:3 [
      "ES" => true
      "ES2" => true
      "LATM" => true
    ]
    "gratuito" => true
    "lecturas" => array:2 [
      "total" => 3606
      "formatos" => array:3 [
        "EPUB" => 277
        "HTML" => 2721
        "PDF" => 608
      ]
    ]
    "en" => array:9 [
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
      "titulo" => "Establishing and controlling chronic renal failure treatment costs&#46; A pressing need"
      "tienePdf" => "en"
      "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en"
      "paginas" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "paginaInicial" => "256"
          "paginaFinal" => "259"
        ]
      ]
      "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
        "es" => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "Conocer y controlar los costes del tratamiento de la insuficiencia renal cr&#243;nica&#46; Una necesidad inaplazable"
        ]
      ]
      "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "contienePdf" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "autores" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "autoresLista" => "R. Mart&#237;n Hern&#225;ndez"
          "autores" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "Iniciales" => "R."
              "apellidos" => "Mart&#237;n Hern&#225;ndez"
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
    "Traduccion" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:9 [
        "pii" => "X0211699511052047"
        "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.May.10959"
        "estado" => "S300"
        "subdocumento" => ""
        "abierto" => array:3 [
          "ES" => true
          "ES2" => true
          "LATM" => true
        ]
        "gratuito" => true
        "lecturas" => array:1 [
          "total" => 0
        ]
        "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
        "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052047?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      ]
    ]
    "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052044?idApp=UINPBA000064"
    "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052044/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  ]
  "itemAnterior" => array:17 [
    "pii" => "X2013251411052060"
    "issn" => "20132514"
    "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10940"
    "estado" => "S300"
    "fechaPublicacion" => "2011-05-01"
    "documento" => "article"
    "licencia" => "http://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/"
    "subdocumento" => "fla"
    "cita" => "Nefrologia &#40;English Version&#41;. 2011;31:247-50"
    "abierto" => array:3 [
      "ES" => true
      "ES2" => true
      "LATM" => true
    ]
    "gratuito" => true
    "lecturas" => array:2 [
      "total" => 8342
      "formatos" => array:3 [
        "EPUB" => 306
        "HTML" => 7292
        "PDF" => 744
      ]
    ]
    "en" => array:10 [
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
      "titulo" => "How to Treat Corticosteroid-Resistant Idiopathic Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis&#63;"
      "tienePdf" => "en"
      "tieneTextoCompleto" => "en"
      "paginas" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "paginaInicial" => "247"
          "paginaFinal" => "250"
        ]
      ]
      "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
        "es" => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "&#191;C&#243;mo tratar la glomeruloesclerosis focal y segmentaria idiop&#225;tica corticorresistente&#63;"
        ]
      ]
      "contieneTextoCompleto" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "contienePdf" => array:1 [
        "en" => true
      ]
      "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
        "original" => 0
        "multimedia" => array:8 [
          "identificador" => "fig1"
          "etiqueta" => "Tab.  1"
          "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
          "mostrarFloat" => true
          "mostrarDisplay" => false
          "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
          "figura" => array:1 [
            0 => array:4 [
              "imagen" => "10940_108_17294_en_t110940.jpg"
              "Alto" => 416
              "Ancho" => 600
              "Tamanyo" => 158979
            ]
          ]
          "descripcion" => array:1 [
            "en" => "Causes of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "autores" => array:1 [
        0 => array:2 [
          "autoresLista" => "F. Rivera Hern&#225;ndez"
          "autores" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "Iniciales" => "F."
              "apellidos" => "Rivera Hern&#225;ndez"
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
    "Traduccion" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:9 [
        "pii" => "X0211699511052063"
        "doi" => "10.3265/Nefrologia.pre2011.Apr.10940"
        "estado" => "S300"
        "subdocumento" => ""
        "abierto" => array:3 [
          "ES" => true
          "ES2" => true
          "LATM" => true
        ]
        "gratuito" => true
        "lecturas" => array:1 [
          "total" => 0
        ]
        "idiomaDefecto" => "es"
        "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X0211699511052063?idApp=UINPBA000064"
      ]
    ]
    "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052060?idApp=UINPBA000064"
    "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052060/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  ]
  "en" => array:12 [
    "idiomaDefecto" => true
    "titulo" => "The role of mTOR inhibitors in renal diseases"
    "tieneTextoCompleto" => true
    "paginas" => array:1 [
      0 => array:2 [
        "paginaInicial" => "251"
        "paginaFinal" => "255"
      ]
    ]
    "autores" => array:1 [
      0 => array:3 [
        "autoresLista" => "J.C. Rodr&#237;guez P&#233;rez"
        "autores" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "Iniciales" => "J.C."
            "apellidos" => "Rodr&#237;guez P&#233;rez"
            "email" => array:1 [
              0 => "jrodperd&#64;gobiernodecanarias&#46;org"
            ]
            "referencia" => array:1 [
              0 => array:2 [
                "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>"
                "identificador" => "affa"
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
        "afiliaciones" => array:1 [
          0 => array:3 [
            "entidad" => "Servicio de Nefrología, Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Dr. Negrín, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria   "
            "etiqueta" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSup">a</span>"
            "identificador" => "affa"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [
      "es" => array:1 [
        "titulo" => "El papel de los inhibidores de mTOR en las enfermedades renales"
      ]
    ]
    "resumenGrafico" => array:2 [
      "original" => 0
      "multimedia" => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "fig1"
        "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg"
            "Alto" => 458
            "Ancho" => 600
            "Tamanyo" => 108667
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "Chemical structure of rapamycin"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">INTRODUCTION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Signal transduction in different types of cells often involves conditional or constitutive activation of receptor tyrosine kinases&#44; which trigger multiple cytoplasmic kinases&#46; Such signalling pathways can operate independently&#44; in parallel&#44; and&#47;or through interconnections that promote different diseases to develop&#46; The most important signalling pathways are phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase &#40;PI3K&#41;&#44; protein kinase C &#40;PKC&#41; and mitogen-activated protein kinase &#40;MAPK&#41;&#47;Ras&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">mTOR PROTEIN</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">mTOR &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">M</span>ammalian <span class="elsevierStyleBold">T</span>arget <span class="elsevierStyleBold">o</span>f <span class="elsevierStyleBold">R</span>apamycin&#41; is a 289-kDa serine&#47;threonine protein kinase&#46; The TOR family of proteins has pleiotropic functions&#44; and participates in the regulation of the initiation of mRNA transcription and protein translation in response to intracellular concentrations of amino acids &#40;AA&#41; and other essential nutrients&#46; It is involved in the organisation of actin cytoskeleton&#44; membrane trafficking&#44; protein degradation&#44; PKC signalling and ribosome biogenesis&#46; mTOR regulates essential signalling pathways and is involved in coupling growth stimuli and cell-cycle progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are two complexes that contain mTOR&#58; a rapamycin-sensitive complex &#40;mTORC1&#41;&#44; which is defined by its interaction with the protein raptor &#40;regulatory-associated protein of mTOR&#41;&#44; and a rapamycin-insensitive complex &#40;mTORC2&#41;&#44; defined by its interaction with rictor &#40;rapamycin-insensitive companion of mTOR&#41;&#46; mTOR is a key kinase which acts downstream of the activation of PI3K&#46; Much evidence supports the hypothesis that mTOR is the key for cellular catabolism and anabolism&#44; determining whether cells&#44; and in particular carcinogenic cells&#44; grow and proliferate&#46; Furthermore&#44; mTOR regulates apoptosis&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">mTOR&#44; in the shape of the two signalling complexes&#44; cited as mTORC1 and mTORC2 with their two different proteins&#44; raptor and rictor&#44; establish two different mTOR pathways&#46; The raptor-mTOR pathway &#40;mTORC1&#41; regulates cellular growth &#40;cellular mass accumulation&#41; and proliferation through P70S6K and 4E-BP&#46; It responds to nutrients and growth factors&#44; partly due to regulators like TSC1&#47;TSC2 &#40;tuberous sclerosis complex 1&#58; hamartin&#59; tuberous sclerosis complex 2&#58; tuberin&#41; and Rheb &#40;a Ras family GTPase&#41;&#46; mTOR &#40;mTORC1&#41; is phosphorylated by AKT &#40;also called protein kinase B-PKB&#41; through inactivation of the tuberous sclerosis complex &#40;TSC&#41; and is directly activated by Rheb&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;3</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The rictor-mTOR &#40;mTORC2&#41; complex regulates AKT&#47;PKB&#44; PKC&#945;&#44; Rho&#47;rac&#44; to control cell polarity and the cytoskeleton&#46; Growth factors and AA activate AKT and mTOR through PI3K&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are transcription factors that could be activated or inhibited through AKT phosphorylation&#46; AKT activates the NF-kB transcription factor&#44; which increases the transcription of antiapoptotic genes&#46; The NF-kB transcription factor is the central mediator of the immune response&#44; inflammatory response and cell survival response&#46; Following its activation&#44; IKK phosphorylates IkB&#44; resulting in their ubiquitination and degradation in the proteasome&#46; This exposes the NF-kB nuclear localisation sites and allows it to translocate to the nucleus to induce antiapoptotic gene expression&#46; Growth factors&#44; such as the vascular endothelial growth factor &#40;VEGF&#41;&#44; activate NF-kB and protect against apoptosis&#46; On the other hand&#44; NF-kB inhibition sensitises the cell to a wide variety of proapoptotic stimuli&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN ACUTE RENAL FAILURE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Regeneration and restoration of the morphology and renal function partly depends on the capacity of the remaining viable kidney tubule cells to proliferate and restore the damaged epithelium&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span> mTOR is an ubiquitous kinase and its inhibition by rapamycin also blocks proliferation&#44; including cells in the kidney&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span> mTOR plays an important role in the regeneration and repair process following an experimental acute kidney injury&#46; The mTOR activity is low or absent in the normal kidney&#44; but increases significantly following an ischaemia-reperfusion process&#46; Inhibition of mTOR by rapamycin delays renal recovery-repair&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The mTOR pathway plays an important role in the mechanisms that are involved in chronic kidney disease &#40;CKD&#41; progression caused by diabetes&#44; for instance&#46; Rapamycin reduces interstitial inflammation&#44; fibrosis and loss of kidney function associated with CKD progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Several studies have shown why it is important for mTOR to be activated in physiological and pathological forms of renal hypertrophy and other organs&#44; including hypertrophy of the diabetic nephropathy &#40;DN&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> This phenomenon contributes to podocyte damage and progressive loss of renal function&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> Furthermore&#44; upon mTOR activation&#44; an increase in matrix protein synthesis will contribute to glomerular basement membrane thickening and the accumulation of the mesangial matrix&#44; which are characteristic of DN&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> mTOR activation in diabetes is&#44; at least&#44; partly caused by hyperglycaemia via AKT activation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> Rapamycin has not only reduced mTOR activity in <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo </span>models&#44; but it has also reduced the characteristic DN changes mentioned above&#44; and it is associated with a reduction in albuminuria&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Similar phenomena can be observed in non-diabetic CKD&#44; with an increase in the proinflammatory and profibrotic cytokine expression&#44; interstitial inflammatory cell infiltration and renal fibrosis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span> Rapamycin treatment for membranous glomerulonephritis in rat models reduces all of these phenomena&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ROLE OF mTOR IN AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT POLYCYSTIC KIDNEY DISEASE</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease &#40;ADPKD&#41; is a genetic disease characterised by the formation of multiple cysts within the renal parenchyma&#44; which results in renal failure&#46; It affects up to one case in every 400-1000 newborns&#46; ADPKD is related to PKD1 and PKD2 gene mutations&#44; which are located in chromosomes 16 and 4&#44; respectively&#46; The PKD1 gene codes for the transmembrane protein polycystin-1 &#40;PC1&#41;&#46; It has been reported that this protein is involved in cell-cell adhesion&#44; cell-matrix adhesion&#44; transduction of intracellular signals and polycystin-2 regulation &#40;PC2&#41;&#44; as the PKD2 gene codes for the PC2 protein&#44; which is a calcium channel&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;12</span> The PC1 and PC2 complex is essential for maintaining the physiological phenotype of the tubular epithelial cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The polycystin protein complexes are fundamental for maintaining intracellular calcium homeostasis&#46; All renal tubular epithelial cells &#40;except the interspersed ones&#41; were recently found to have a single primary cilium which has mechanoreceptor and chemoreceptor functions&#46; Stimulation of these cilia increases the intracellular calcium through the PC1 and PC2 complex&#46; Intracellular calcium controls many of the cellular processes&#44; such as proliferation&#46; Therefore&#44; drugs that reduce cyclic adenosine monophosphate &#40;cAMP&#41; or which increase intracellular calcium could treat ADPKD&#46; Calcium is also involved in signalling pathways related with growth factors&#44; activating signalling cascades for some protein kinases&#46; Alongside this&#44; PC1 regulates the mTOR activity &#40;loss of PC1 activity in ADPKD allows significant mTOR activity inside the cyst epithelial cells in mouse and human models&#41;&#44; which would be a therapeutic target&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;13</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">RAPAMYCIN DEVELOPMENT</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin is also called sirolimus&#59; it is a natural antibiotic synthesised by <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">S&#46; hygroscopicus</span>&#46; This bacterium was discovered 30 years ago in earth from Easter Island&#44; Rapa Nui&#44; which is where the name rapamycin came from&#46; It is a lactone initially developed as an antifungal agent&#46; In its purest form&#44; it resembles a white crystalline powder&#44; insoluble in an aqueous solution&#44; but soluble in organic solvents&#46; The chemical structure is shown in Figure 1&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Between 1982 and 1988&#44; rapamycin was developed as an immunosuppressive agent&#46; Thanks to these studies&#44; the mechanism of action of this molecule was clarified&#46; Rapamycin interacts with the immunophilin FK506 binding protein &#40;FKBP12&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>through its methoxy group&#46; The rapamycin-FKBP12 complex is specifically bound to the mTOR protein&#44; inhibiting the effector signalling pathways dependent on said protein&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span> Rapamycin inhibits antigen-induced T cell proliferation and the cytokine-induced proliferative responses&#44; including interleukin-16 &#40;IL-16&#41;&#44; immunoglobulin growth factor &#40;IGF&#41;&#44; etc&#46; It follows the cytochrome CYP450 3A4 pathway as the main system responsible for drug biotransformation&#44; generating inactive metabolites&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A high level of synergism has been shown for this drug with cyclosporin&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> both <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46; As such&#44; the dosage for effective immunosuppression is reduced&#44; decreasing the probability of kidney graft rejection and minimising cyclosporine-induced toxicity&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">An important aspect of rapamycin as an immunosuppressant is that it does not produce secondary effects on renal haemodynamics&#46; Treatment with rapamycin maintains glomerular filtration and the renal blood flow both for normal rats and rats with salt depletion or spontaneous hypertension&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span> The renal tissue seems to be protected during rapamycin treatment by an inhibition of the intrarenal angiotensin II cascade&#46; However&#44; rapamycin does produce a dose-dependent tubular toxicity in rats &#40;including hypercalcaemia and hypophosphataemia&#41;&#44; a phenomenon linked to delayed recovery of the tubular epithelial function after injury&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration &#40;FDA&#41; in 1999 as a preventative treatment of acute rejection in combination with cyclosporine and steroids&#46; A year later&#44; the drug was approved by the European Medicines Agency &#40;EMEA&#41; as an alternative to calcineurin antagonists in long-term treatment to prevent graft rejection&#46; Rapamycin&#44; unlike cyclosporine&#44; does not seem to increase the risk of malignancy&#44; but reduces the risk of lymphoproliferative processes after transplantation &#40;reducing AKT levels&#41;&#46; However&#44; rapamycin increases CsA side effects&#58; high blood pressure&#44; acne and hirsutism and has been associated with mild secondary effects such as diarrhoea&#44; tachycardia&#44; oedemas&#44; dyslipidaemia and non-infectious pneumonitis&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In addition to its immunosuppressant capability&#44; rapamycin has been proven to act as a preventative agent on restenosis of the coronary arteries&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span> The hypothetical mechanism responsible for the inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by rapamycin includes&#44; among others&#44; the binding to protein FKBP12&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In another article published in this issue&#44; Dr Cabrera et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> discuss the results of rapamycin treatment on the evolution of angiomyolipomas in a substantial number of patients suffering from tuberous sclerosis &#40;TS&#41; or Pringle-Bourneville disease &#40;this number is considerable taking into account the prevalence of the disease&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The TS complex is a systemic disease&#44; which is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder with a prevalence of one case for every 6000 live births&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span> It is characterised by benign tumours &#40;hamartomas&#41; in multiple organs and systems&#44; including brain&#44; skin&#44; kidney&#44; lungs&#44; heart and retina&#46; Angiomyolipomas are tumours rich in adipose tissue&#44; muscle and blood vessels that may bleed or infiltrate the kidneys causing deterioration of kidney function for up to 80&#37; of patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Mutations that may occur in any of the two TS genes&#44; TSC1 &#40;hamartin&#41; or TSC2 &#40;tuberin&#41; is above 85&#37; for TS patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span> Proteins coded by these two genes form a tumour-suppressive complex&#44; acting through Ras homolog enriched brain protein &#40;Rheb&#41;&#44; which limits mTOR activation &#40;mTORC1&#41;&#46; When TSC1 or TSC2 are deficient&#44; mTORC1<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>is overexpressed constitutively&#44; provoking cellular growth&#44; proliferation and abnormally high protein synthesis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The clinical trial in phase 4 which the above mentioned authors present&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> shows a significant reduction in the volume of angiomyolipomas after as little as six months of rapamycin treatment &#40;55&#46;1&#37; average&#41;&#44; reaching a reduction of 66&#46;3&#37; at 12 months&#46; The reduction of volume of angiomyolipomas seems to be due to the effect of mTOR inhibition and its effect on VEGF&#46; Another interesting point that these authors document in this paper is the possibility of reducing the rapamycin dose once the peak reduction of the angiomyolipomas volume has been achieved&#44; seemingly being at between 12 and 24 months&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20&#44;25</span> However&#44; the treatment must not be withdrawn as that would promote tumour regrowth&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span> Whether the effect of rapamycin would be the same in any type of angiomyolipoma is still unknown&#44; depending on its size and location &#40;unilateral or bilateral&#41;&#46; Furthermore&#44; as there are no genetic studies&#44; we are still unaware if the rapamycin response varies depending on whether it is located in TSC1 or TSC2&#44; given that the phenotype may be different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Only one patient was excluded before 12 months due to reactivation of an erythema nodosum&#46; No changes were found in renal function&#44; as rapamycin plasma levels were maintained constant&#46; Despite the adverse effects cited in the medical literature&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span> the authors found a higher incidence of oral aphtae and dyslipidemia&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> Furthermore&#44; facial angiofibromas in these patients are smaller and not as relevant&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">There are very few data in the literature on this matter&#44; and those found are isolated and based on some clinical cases<span class="elsevierStyleSup">26 </span>and a trial published in the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">New England Journal of Medicine</span> with 25 patients&#44; of which only 20 completed the 12-month follow-up period&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25</span> None of these references presented genetic studies&#46; Nevertheless&#44; as the authors cited in their article&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> there are several studies being developed in the United States and Europe&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rapamycin&#44; through mTOR inhibition&#44; is an alternative therapy for this disease&#46; More studies are needed to define the risks and benefits of long-term rapamycin treatment for this type of genetic disorder&#44; its use as a monotherapy or in combination&#44; and considering location and size of the angiomyolipomas&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KEY CONCEPTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">1&#46; mTOR is an important modulator of several types of kidney diseases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">2&#46; mTOR is activated following acute kidney damage and contributes to renal regeneration and repair&#46; Rapamycin can delay renal recovery and repair&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">3&#46; mTOR plays an important role in the formation and growth of cysts in ADPKD&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">4&#46; Rapamycin may&#44; through different mechanisms&#44; delay the reduction of glomerular filtration in chronic kidney diseases&#44; reducing their progression&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">5&#46; When used as a monotherapy&#44; rapamycin can be an alternative therapy for preventing the growth of kidney angiomyolipomas in tuberous sclerosis and delay&#47;prevent renal failure&#46; Possible adverse effects of rapamycin must be taken into consideration&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">6&#46; Although intervention on the mTOR complex in progression of chronic kidney diseases may seem straightforward&#44; more studies must be performed to establish this interconnection&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="grande&#47;10947&#95;108&#95;17297&#95;en&#95;f1&#95;10947i&#46;jpg" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"><img src="10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg" alt="Chemical structure of rapamycin"></img></a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Chemical structure of rapamycin</p>"
    "pdfFichero" => "P1-E521-S2951-A10947-EN.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "multimedia" => array:1 [
      0 => array:8 [
        "identificador" => "fig1"
        "etiqueta" => "Fig. 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIAFIGURA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "copyright" => "Elsevier Espa&#241;a"
        "figura" => array:1 [
          0 => array:4 [
            "imagen" => "10947_108_17297_en_f1_10947i.jpg"
            "Alto" => 458
            "Ancho" => 600
            "Tamanyo" => 108667
          ]
        ]
        "descripcion" => array:1 [
          "en" => "Chemical structure of rapamycin"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "bibliografia" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "Bibliography"
      "seccion" => array:1 [
        0 => array:1 [
          "bibliografiaReferencia" => array:26 [
            0 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib1"
              "etiqueta" => "1"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Pérez Machín R, Rodríguez Díaz Y, Vega Hernández MC. La ruta mTOR como diana terapéutica. BioCancer 2006;3."
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            1 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib2"
              "etiqueta" => "2"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Masoumi A, Reed Gitomer B, Kelleher C, Schrier RW. Potential pharmacological interventions in polycystic kidney disease. Drugs 2007;67:2495-510. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18034588" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            2 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib3"
              "etiqueta" => "3"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lieberthal W, Levine JS. The role of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2009;20:2493-502. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19875810" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            3 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib4"
              "etiqueta" => "4"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bonventre JV. Dedifferentiation and proliferation of surviving epithelial cells in acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003;14(Suppl 1):S55-S61. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12761240" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            4 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib5"
              "etiqueta" => "5"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lieberthal W, Fuhro R, Andry CC, Rennke H, Abernathy VE, Koh JS, et al.\u{A0}Rapamycin impairs recovery from acute renal failure: role of cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis of tubular cells. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2001;281:F693-F706. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11553517" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            5 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib6"
              "etiqueta" => "6"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lee CH, Inoki K, Guan KL. mTOR pathway as a target in tissue hypertrophy. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2007;47:443-67. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16968213" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            6 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib7"
              "etiqueta" => "7"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Hostetter TH. Hyperfiltration and glomerulosclerosis. Semin Nephrol 2003;23:194-9. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12704579" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            7 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib8"
              "etiqueta" => "8"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Kasinath BS, Mariappan MM, Sataranatarajan K, Lee MJ, Feliers D. mRNA translation: Unexplored territory in renal science. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:3281-92. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16959824" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            8 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib9"
              "etiqueta" => "9"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Lloberas N, Cruzado JM, Franquesa M, Herrero-Fresneda I, Torras J, Alperovich G, et al.\u{A0}Mammalian target of rapamycin pathway blockade slows progression of diabetic kidney disease in rats. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:1395-404. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16597691" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            9 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib10"
              "etiqueta" => "10"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Eddy AA, Neilson EG. Chronic kidney disease progression. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;17:2964-6. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17035605" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            10 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib11"
              "etiqueta" => "11"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bonegio RG, Fuhro R, Wang Z, Valeri CR, Andry C, Salant DJ, et al.\u{A0}Rapamycin ameliorates proteinuria-associated tubulointerstitial inflammation and fibrosis in experimental membranous nephropathy. J Am Soc Nephrol 2005;16:2063-72. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15917339" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            11 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib12"
              "etiqueta" => "12"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Aguiari G, Trimi V, Bogo M, Mangolini A, Szabadkai G, Pinton P, et al.\u{A0}Novel role for polycystin-1 in modulating cell proliferation through calcium oscillations in kidney cells. Cell Prolif 2008;41:554-73. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18422703" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            12 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib13"
              "etiqueta" => "13"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Shillingford JM, Murcia NS, Larson CH, Low SH, Hedgepeth R, Brown N, et al.\u{A0}The mTOR pathway is regulated by polycystin-1, and its inhibition reverses renal cystogenesis in polycystic kidney disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:5466-71. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16567633" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            13 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib14"
              "etiqueta" => "14"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Baker H, Sidorowicz A, Sehgal SN, Vezina C.\u{A0}Rapamycin (AY-22,989), a new antifungal antibiotic. III. In vitro and in vivo evaluation. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 1978;31:539-45."
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            14 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib15"
              "etiqueta" => "15"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Davies CB, Madden RL, Alexander JW. Effect of a short course of rapamycin, cyclosporin A, and donor-specific transfusion on rat cardiac allograft survival. Transplantation 1993;55:1107-12. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8497890" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:1 [
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [
                          "pii" => "S0140673609619656"
                          "estado" => "S300"
                          "issn" => "01406736"
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            15 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib16"
              "etiqueta" => "16"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Trepanier DJ, Gallant H, Legatt DF, Yatscoff RW. Rapamycin: distribution, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic range investigations: an update. Clin Biochem 1998;31:345-51. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9721433" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => array:1 [
                      "Revista" => array:1 [
                        "itemHostRev" => array:3 [
                          "pii" => "S0735109710027105"
                          "estado" => "S300"
                          "issn" => "07351097"
                        ]
                      ]
                    ]
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            16 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib17"
              "etiqueta" => "17"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "DiJoseph JF, Mihatsch MJ, Sehgal SN. Renal effects of rapamycin in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Transpl Int 1994;7:83-8. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8179808" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            17 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib18"
              "etiqueta" => "18"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Andoh TF, Burdmann EA, Fransechini N, Houghton DC, Bennett WM. Comparison of acute rapamycin nephrotoxicity with cyclosporine and FK506. Kidney Int 1996;50:1110-7. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8887267" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            18 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib19"
              "etiqueta" => "19"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Sousa JE, Sousa AG, Costa MA, Abizaid AC, Feres F. Use of rapamycin-impregnated stents in coronary arteries. Transplant Proc 2003;35:165S-170S. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12742491" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            19 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib20"
              "etiqueta" => "20"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Cabrera López C, Martí T, Catalá V, Torres F, Mateu S, Ballarín Castán J, et al.\u{A0}Efectos de la rapamicina en los angiomiolipomas de pacientes con esclerosis tuberosa. Nefrologia 2011;31(3):292-8. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21629335" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            20 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib21"
              "etiqueta" => "21"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Krueger DA, Franz DN. Current Management of tuberous sclerosis complex. Paediatr Drugs 2008;10:299-313. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18754697" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            21 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib22"
              "etiqueta" => "22"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bissler JJ, Kingswood JC. Renal angiomyolipomata. Kidney Int 2004;66:924-34. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15327383" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            22 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib23"
              "etiqueta" => "23"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Crino PB, Nathanson KL, Henske EP. The tuberous sclerosis complex. N Engl J Med 2006;355:1345-56. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17005952" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            23 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib24"
              "etiqueta" => "24"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Huang J, Manning BD. The TSC1-TSC2 complex: a molecular switchboard controlling cell growth. Biochem J 2008;412:179-90. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18466115" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            24 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib25"
              "etiqueta" => "25"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Bissler JJ, McCormack FX, Young LR, Elwing JM, Chuck G, Leonard JM, et al. Sirolimus for angiomyolipoma in tuberous sclerosis complex or lymphangioleiomyomatosis. N Engl J Med 2008; 358:140-51. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18184959" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
            25 => array:3 [
              "identificador" => "bib26"
              "etiqueta" => "26"
              "referencia" => array:1 [
                0 => array:3 [
                  "referenciaCompleta" => "Wienecke R, Facler I, Linsenmaier U, Mayer K, Licht T, Kretzler M. Antitumoral activity of rapamycin in renal angiomyolipoma associated with tuberous sclerosis complex. Am J Kidney Dis 2006;48:E27-E29. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16931204" target="_blank">[Pubmed]</a>"
                  "contribucion" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                  "host" => array:1 [
                    0 => null
                  ]
                ]
              ]
            ]
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
  ]
  "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
  "url" => "/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052052/v0_201502091638/en/main.assets"
  "Apartado" => array:4 [
    "identificador" => "35428"
    "tipo" => "SECCION"
    "en" => array:2 [
      "titulo" => "Editorial Comments"
      "idiomaDefecto" => true
    ]
    "idiomaDefecto" => "en"
  ]
  "PDF" => "https://static.elsevier.es/multimedia/20132514/0000003100000003/v0_201502091638/X2013251411052052/v0_201502091638/en/P1-E521-S2951-A10947-EN.pdf?idApp=UINPBA000064&text.app=https://revistanefrologia.com/"
  "EPUB" => "https://multimedia.elsevier.es/PublicationsMultimediaV1/item/epub/X2013251411052052?idApp=UINPBA000064"
]
Article information
ISSN: 20132514
Original language: English
The statistics are updated each day
Year/Month Html Pdf Total
2024 November 16 8 24
2024 October 127 43 170
2024 September 121 41 162
2024 August 156 67 223
2024 July 119 33 152
2024 June 122 42 164
2024 May 140 48 188
2024 April 100 39 139
2024 March 105 23 128
2024 February 78 49 127
2024 January 84 27 111
2023 December 59 35 94
2023 November 106 41 147
2023 October 79 39 118
2023 September 104 37 141
2023 August 102 29 131
2023 July 101 25 126
2023 June 88 19 107
2023 May 106 27 133
2023 April 66 13 79
2023 March 104 23 127
2023 February 55 16 71
2023 January 60 23 83
2022 December 60 27 87
2022 November 63 32 95
2022 October 81 55 136
2022 September 120 30 150
2022 August 133 51 184
2022 July 68 44 112
2022 June 90 43 133
2022 May 87 30 117
2022 April 100 64 164
2022 March 78 58 136
2022 February 55 45 100
2022 January 83 26 109
2021 December 79 54 133
2021 November 77 31 108
2021 October 76 44 120
2021 September 53 50 103
2021 August 64 61 125
2021 July 53 35 88
2021 June 48 25 73
2021 May 70 43 113
2021 April 102 75 177
2021 March 100 38 138
2021 February 102 23 125
2021 January 47 26 73
2020 December 53 17 70
2020 November 61 20 81
2020 October 37 17 54
2020 September 36 5 41
2020 August 48 13 61
2020 July 84 18 102
2020 June 59 13 72
2020 May 57 16 73
2020 April 69 20 89
2020 March 44 17 61
2020 February 57 15 72
2020 January 62 17 79
2019 December 71 22 93
2019 November 53 20 73
2019 October 41 10 51
2019 September 85 27 112
2019 August 57 16 73
2019 July 53 29 82
2019 June 51 16 67
2019 May 61 12 73
2019 April 100 50 150
2019 March 38 17 55
2019 February 31 11 42
2019 January 31 24 55
2018 December 92 35 127
2018 November 90 9 99
2018 October 65 22 87
2018 September 71 16 87
2018 August 54 23 77
2018 July 58 15 73
2018 June 54 9 63
2018 May 45 19 64
2018 April 52 9 61
2018 March 67 8 75
2018 February 56 11 67
2018 January 63 5 68
2017 December 54 10 64
2017 November 65 9 74
2017 October 52 10 62
2017 September 36 9 45
2017 August 31 11 42
2017 July 38 9 47
2017 June 52 12 64
2017 May 39 10 49
2017 April 40 10 50
2017 March 28 10 38
2017 February 34 9 43
2017 January 32 7 39
2016 December 64 5 69
2016 November 101 31 132
2016 October 110 20 130
2016 September 180 34 214
2016 August 270 37 307
2016 July 197 11 208
2016 June 131 0 131
2016 May 129 0 129
2016 April 119 0 119
2016 March 114 0 114
2016 February 123 0 123
2016 January 126 0 126
2015 December 129 0 129
2015 November 111 0 111
2015 October 96 0 96
2015 September 86 0 86
2015 August 75 0 75
2015 July 72 0 72
2015 June 32 0 32
2015 May 47 0 47
2015 April 5 0 5
Show all

Follow this link to access the full text of the article

Idiomas
Nefrología (English Edition)
es en

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?