Cardiac complications of arteriovenous fistulas in patients with end-stage renal disease

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array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "paginaInicial" => "234" "paginaFinal" => "245" ] ] "autores" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "autoresLista" => "Mohamad Alkhouli, Paul Sandhu, Khlaed Boobes, Kamel Hatahet, Farhan Raza, Yousef Boobes" "autores" => array:6 [ 0 => array:4 [ "nombre" => "Mohamad" "apellidos" => "Alkhouli" "email" => array:2 [ 0 => "adnanalkhouli@gmail.com" 1 => "mohamad_alkhouli@urmc.rochester.edu" ] "referencia" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "*" "identificador" => "cor0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Paul" "apellidos" => "Sandhu" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] ] ] 2 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Khlaed" "apellidos" => "Boobes" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] ] ] 3 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Kamel" "apellidos" => "Hatahet" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] ] ] 4 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Farhan" "apellidos" => "Raza" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "aff0025" ] ] ] 5 => array:3 [ "nombre" => "Yousef" "apellidos" => "Boobes" "referencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "etiqueta" => "f" "identificador" => "aff0030" ] ] ] ] "afiliaciones" => array:6 [ 0 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Cardiology Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA" "etiqueta" => "a" "identificador" => "aff0005" ] 1 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Internal Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA" "etiqueta" => "b" "identificador" => "aff0010" ] 2 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Nephrology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA" "etiqueta" => "c" "identificador" => "aff0015" ] 3 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Department of Nephrology, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA" "etiqueta" => "d" "identificador" => "aff0020" ] 4 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Cardiology Department, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA" "etiqueta" => "e" "identificador" => "aff0025" ] 5 => array:3 [ "entidad" => "Twam Hospital, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates" "etiqueta" => "f" "identificador" => "aff0030" ] ] "correspondencia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "cor0005" "etiqueta" => "⁎" "correspondencia" => "Corresponding author." ] ] ] ] "titulosAlternativos" => array:1 [ "es" => array:1 [ "titulo" => "Complicaciones cardiacas de las fístulas arteriovenosas en pacientes con enfermedad renal terminal" ] ] "textoCompleto" => "Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of the death in patients receiving chronic renal replacement therapy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500">1–3</a> Arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) have superior longevity, lower infection and mortality rates and are associated with lower cost, and hence have become the vascular access of choice for patients needing dialysis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515">4</a> Indeed, the prevalence of AVFs in the United States increased from 32% of all dialysis access in 2003 to 61% in 2012.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0520">5,6</a> Despite their association with a lower mortality, AVFs have significant effects on cardiac functions predominantly related to the increase in preload and cardiac output (CO). This article reviews the potential effects of the creation and the ligation of AVFs on cardiac function and their mechanisms.It should be emphasized, at the outset, that determining the exact effects of AVFs on cardiac functions is fraught with problems for a couple of reasons: patients with end stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis almost invariably have volume overload due to water and salt retention. They also have pressure load due to arterial sclerosis and hypertension, and increased CO secondary to chronic anemia. In addition, many hemodialysis patients have significant pre-existing myocardial, valvular or coronary heart disease. It is, therefore, often difficult to tease out the exact contribution of an AVF to cardiac dysfunction in hemodialysis patients. Nevertheless, worsening in cardiac functions soon after AVF creation has been observed favoring a causative effect of the AVF on certain cardiac functions. The current literature suggests that the creation of AVF can cause or exacerbate the following conditions: congestive heart failure, left ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular dysfunction, coronary artery disease, and valvular dysfunction.AVFs and congestive heart failureCongestive heart failure (CHF) is highly prevalent among patients with ESRD. Approximately 35–40% of patients with ESRD have an established CHF diagnosis at initiation of hemodialysis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500">1,3,7–9</a> Patients with ESRD and CHF have a far worse prognosis than those without CHF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0510">3,10</a> Since hemodynamic optimization is the corner stone of managing patients with ESRD as well as those with CHF, studying the hemodynamic effects of AVFs in patients with ESRD with and without CHF is a sensible task.Long before we utilized AVFs for hemodialysis access, the hemodynamic effects of AVFs were studied in patients who developed AVFs secondary to trauma AVFs. In these patients, the development of an AVF was noted to be associated with an apparent increase in CO.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0550">11,12</a> The introduction of the ‘man-made’ AVFs for hemodialysis access provided more insight into the hemodynamic effects of these fistulas: First, the creation of an AVF leads to shunting of blood flow from the high resistance arterial system into the low resistance venous system, with a subsequent rise in venous return and CO.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0560">13</a> Second, the presence of an AVF decreases arterial impedance and thus lessens the left ventricular afterload. The lowering of arterial impendence may also reduce the effective circulating volume of the systemic circulation, activating arterial baroreceptors, and leading to secondary increase in cardiac sympathetic tone, contractility, and CO.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0565">14–16</a> The net effect of AVFs is a significant increase in CO.Many studies investigated the impact of AVFs on echocardiographic indices of cardiac morphology and function.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560">13,14,16–21</a> These studies consistently showed an increase in LV end-diastolic dimension (LVEDD), contractility, stroke volume and CO within 7–10 days after the surgical construction of AVF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560">13,14,18</a> Diastolic filling parameters (E to A ratio) were also impaired, indicative of worsening diastolic functions. On average, the creation of an AVF increases CO by 15–20% and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure by 5–10%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0575">16</a> Additionally, biomarkers secreted in response to hypervolemia such as atrial naturietic peptide (ANP) and brain naturietic peptide (BNP), are both substantially increased,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560">13,14</a> suggesting the presence of an cardiac volume overload despite an optimal overall body volume status.The impact of these physiological effects of AVF on the cardiac function is controversial. While many studies suggested that the decreased vascular resistance and the increased CO are predisposing factors for the development or the worsening of heart failure,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540">9</a> others suggested that the decrease in peripheral resistance and blood pressure with a parallel increase in ejection fraction could be potentially beneficial.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605">22</a>Risk of worsening heart failure after AVFThere is no standard definition for high output CHF. The literature is inconclusive with regards to the incidence of worsening CHF after AVF creation. Most authors believe that the incidence of high output CHF among hemodialysis patients with AVFs is low, and that most patients with ESRD tolerate AVFs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610">23,24</a> This belief is supported by the fact that the literature on high output CHF in ESRD patients is limited to case reports and small series<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620">25–28</a> and that corrective measures (AVF banding or surgical ligation) due to AVF-related cardiac derangement are uncommon. Dixon et al. noted that the rate of AVF banding due to worsening CHF in a cohort of 204 patients (322 accesses) was only 2.6%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640">29</a> On the other hand, some authors suggest that high output CHF is not uncommon but is often overlooked.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0625">26,30</a> These authors argue that when cardiac deterioration occur in hemodialysis patients, it is usually attributed to the many risk factors that are highly prevalent in this population, and that the exact contribution of AVF to the worsening in cardiac functions is often not carefully sought.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500">1,3,7–9</a> This is especially in patients with a long-standing AVFs, although AVF-related worsening CHF has been reported up to 10 years after AVF formation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650">31</a>It should be emphasized that most ESRD patients tolerate AVF well. However, given the deleterious outcomes in those who do not tolerate AVF, substantial efforts have been made to identify that small fraction of patients who are at risk for cardiac decompensation and high output CHF. There is compelling evidence that the development of high output CHF in ESRD patients with prior clinical or subclinical heart failure, is proportional to the vascular access flow (Qa),<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0640">29,32,33</a> Most cases of high output CHF were reported in patients with Qa>2l/min.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655">32</a> Upper arm (brachiocephalic) AVFs have twice the flow or lower arm (radiocephalic) AVFs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0665">34</a> Macrae et al. noted that the average Qa in upper arm AVFs among ESRD patients enrolled in several studies was 1.13–1.72l/min.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660">33</a> In the same cohort, 15% of patients had a Qa>2l/min. The ratio of access flow (Qa) to CO can be also be used to predict the risk of worsening CHF. A functional upper arm AVF has an average Qa/CO of 22%. Based on anecdotal experience, high output heart failure was associated with a Qa/CO of >40% in most cases.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660">33</a> However, from an epidemiological point of view, high Qa is not clearly associated with an increase in mortality. In an interesting study by Al-Ghonaim et al., there was no increased risk of death at higher levels of Qa.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670">35</a>Risk of developing de novo heart failure after AVFAlthough some authors postulate that cardiac decompensation in ESRD patients with AVFs occurs only in individuals with previously established chronic heart disease, there is evidence that AVF creation is a major risk factor for developing a new onset CHF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0510">3,26,33,36</a> In the HEMO study, symptoms of CHF developed de novo during dialysis therapy in 17% of the patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510">3</a> Albeit this could be purely due to the high prevalence of risk factors for developing CHF in the ESRD population, an independent effect of AVFs has been suggested. In an observational study of 562 pre-dialysis patients, the creation of AVF was more predictive of the development of decompensated CHF than a history of established CHF (odd ratio: 9.54 vs. 2.52, respectively).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0675">36</a> The median time between the creation of the AVF and the first episode of CHF was 51 days (range: 26–138). The location of AVF was, expectantly, closely related to the incidence of new CHF (40% in brachio-cephalic vs. 8% in radio-cephalic AVF).AVFs and left ventricular hypertrophyLeft ventricular (LV) hypertrophy is highly prevalent among patients with ESRD, and is a strong predictor of morbidity and mortality.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0680">37,38</a> Although it is mainly a result of chronic systemic hypertension, volume overload and anemia, the presence of an AVF has a non-negligible effect on LV hypertrophy.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0685">38</a> Arteriovenous fistulas increase CO and lead to significant increases in both left ventricular wall mass and diameter in the long-term.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560">13,20,39,40</a> Furthermore, LV hypertrophy tends to persist in patients who had successful kidney transplantation (KT) but have a remaining functional AVF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0680">37,38</a> Closure of AVFs post-transplant has been shown to be associated with significant regression of LV hypertrophy, despite the observed post-closure increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580">17,19,41,42</a> This regression in LV mass starts as early as 3–10 weeks after fistula closure and becomes more pronounced at intermediate and long-term follow up.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580">17,42</a> Although it is intuitive to speculate that regression of LV hypertrophy will lead to fewer cardiovascular events, a direct beneficial effect has not been proven. In fact, some authors believe that the potential benefit of such regression in LV mass after fistula closure might be blunted by the observed shift from a predominately eccentric hypertrophy to a predominantly concentric hypertrophy, a pattern that is known to be associated with worse long term outcomes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580">17,19</a>AVFs and pulmonary hypertensionPulmonary hypertension (PH) complicates ESRD with a prevalence of 12–45%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0615">24,43</a> The presence of PH in the dialysis population confers 2–3 folds increase in all-cause mortality.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710">43–45</a> In the majority of these patients, PH is post-capillary (pulmonary venous hypertension – World Health Organization Class II).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725">46</a> Patients on hemodialysis have several risk factors for developing PH: LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction, volume overload, endothelial dysfunction and sleep-discorded breathing.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0570">15</a> However, the presence of an AVF has been shown to be an independent risk factor for the development of PH in ESRD patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610">23,43,47,48</a> Paneni et al. compared echocardiography-derived peak systolic pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) between patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD), and those receiving hemodialysis with radial and brachial AVFs. Systolic PAP was 29.7±6.7, 37.9±6.7 and 40.8±6.6mm Hg, respectively (p<0.001).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730">47</a> In concordance with these findings, several other studies found a much less prevalence of PH in patients receiving PD compared to matched cohorts of patients undergoing hemodialysis via AVF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610">23,43,48,49</a> The mechanisms of AVF-related PH deserve more scrutiny.The effects of volume overloadAs discussed previously, AVFs lead to decreased systemic vascular resistances, increased venous return, and therefore increased pulmonary blood and enhanced CO setting the stage for load-related PH.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560">13,14,17,18,20</a> This theory has been supported by several studies that demonstrated a temporal relationship between PAP rise and AVF creation.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0740">49–52</a> These studies also showed a significant association between both the duration of AVF and the fistula flow with the severity of PH.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0740">49,50,52</a> Upper arm AVFs, known to have higher flow than lower arm AVFs, are associated with higher risk of developing PH.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730">47,50</a> Compression of the AVFs by a sphygmomanometer,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710">43,53</a> and surgical closure of the AVFs,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765">54</a> both induce a rapid decrease in CO followed by a stable decrease in PAP. The late drop in PAP could be more pronounced than the initial drop when manual compression of an AVF is undertaken. In a case series of five patients in whom manual compression of the AVF in the catheterization laboratory was performed to predict a successful surgical closure, the chronic drop in CO following surgical AVF closure was 4 fold greater than the fall in CO seen during acute manual compression of the fistula (F. Raza, personal communication). Contrary to these findings, no association between the presence of AVFs or fistula flow and PAP was found in two small studies.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610">23,24</a>Although AVF-associated volume overload seems to be the prime mechanism in development of PH in the hemodialysis population, the ability of an AVF alone to cause PH has been questioned.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710">43</a> The pulmonary circuit has an enormous capacity and is usually able to tolerate significant volume loads before it decompensates. Hence, it has been proposed that in patients who develop PH after AVF creation, a baseline pulmonary vascular dysfunction is present leading to failure of the pulmonary circuit to accommodate the AVF-mediated elevated CO.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710">43</a> This assumption is supported by two observations: (1) Patients without kidney disease or other significant co-morbidities are able to tolerate traumatic AVFs for a long time before they develop symptoms of PH or heart failure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770">55–58</a> (2) Kidney transplantation may revert PAP to normal in patients who still have a functioning AVF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760">53</a>Endothelial dysfunction has been suggested as an alternative or additive etiology for the development of pulmonary hypertension in patients with AVF. The vascular endothelium has complex and important physiological functions including controlling the vascular tone.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0790">59,60</a> Several studies have shown that patients with ESRD have impaired nitric oxide (NO) production,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0800">61</a> and increased endothelin-1 (ET-1) activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0805">62</a> both of which have been implicated in the pathophysiology of PH.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0810">63</a> The impaired NO production in dialysis patients is thought to be secondary to the reduced bioavailability of NO substrate l-arginine, and the accumulation of endogenous inhibitors of NO synthase.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0815">64</a> The lack of the vasodilator properties of NO could contribute to an increased vascular tone and eventually to the causation of PH. Another potential cause of endothelial dysfunction in dialysis patients is the vascular wall shear stress associated with hemodialysis-related abnormal hemodynamics.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0805">62,65</a> In non-dialysis patients with chronic left to right blood shunts (e.g. patients with congenital heart disease), blood shunting augments wall shear stress which leads to endothelial damage, vascular remodeling and PH.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0820">65,66</a> Similar effects can be suggested in hemodialysis patients with functional AVFs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0805">62,67</a>AVFs and right ventricular dysfunctionThe prevalence and pathophysiology of PH in patients on hemodialysis has been extensively studied. However, data on the development of right ventricular (RV) dysfunction in ESRD patients with AVF is scarce.A few recent studies examined the effect of AVFs on echocardiographic parameters of RV dysfunction.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730">47,68,69</a> Paneni et al. studied the prevalence of RV dysfunction in 94 patients on hemodialysis and 26 patients on PD.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730">47</a> In this study, Tissue Doppler-derived myocardial performance index (MPI) was used as an indicator of global RV function. Myocardial performance index has been found to be more sensitive and less load-dependent than other echo indices in predicting RV dysfunction and adverse clinical outcomes.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0845">70,71</a> Right ventricular ejection fraction was preserved in the majority of patients across all subgroups. Right ventricular dysfunction (defined with an MPI>0.53) was, however, more prevalent in hemodialysis patients compared with PD patients (71.3 vs. 34.6%, p<0.001). The prevalence of RV dysfunction further increased in patients with brachial AVF compared with the radial access (90.6% vs. 61.3%, p<0.001). Logistic regression analysis adjusting for confounding factors including PAP showed that patients carrying AVFs displayed an increased risk of RV dysfunction when compared to the PD group [OR: 6.3 (95% CI: 2.0–19.5), p<0.001]. Again, the risk of RV dysfunction was further enhanced in patients with brachial AVF compared to those with the radial fistulas [OR: 5.9 (95% CI: 1.5–23.1), p<0.05]. In another study of 41 HD patients with AVFs, RV dysfunction (defined by an MPI of >0.55), was present in 18 patients (44%).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0835">68</a> In keeping with the findings by Paneni et al., the presence of AVF was associated with RV dysfunction independent of PAP values. DiLullo et al. also demonstrated that AVFs were associated with impaired RV systolic function (assessed by tricuspid annular plane excursion – TAPSE) and significant RV chamber dilatation compared to those dialyzed via central venous catheters.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0840">69</a>The presence of RV dysfunction independent of PAP values, argues against a major role for PH in the development of RV dysfunction in ESRD patients.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730">47,68</a> It also suggests that AVF-dependent volume overload may by itself play a major role in triggering RV dysfunction in patients undergoing hemodialysis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730">47</a>AVFs and coronary artery diseaseSignificant coronary artery disease (CAD) is found in 30–40% of ESRD patients on hemodialysis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0505">2,9,72</a> Compared with non-dialysis CAD patients, those on hemodialysis have substantially higher cardiac mortality, and poorer outcomes when undergoing percutaneous or surgical revascularization.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0860">73,74</a>The concern with AVFs in patients with CAD is three-fold: (1) the potential to provoke silent subendocardial myocardial ischemia due to increased oxygen demand and/or decrease oxygen supply. (2) The possible negative impact of AVFs on ipsilateral internal mammary artery (IMA) bypass graft, due to distal steal. (3) The interference of AVFs with cardiopulmonary bypass in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass (CABG) surgery.Impact of AVF on coronary ischemiaIn dog studies, high-flow AVFs were associated with decrease subendocardial coronary perfusion mainly due to decreased diastolic pressure and shortening of the diastolic period.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0870">75,76</a> An interesting study by savage et al. used filtered non-fistula arm finger pressure recordings to examine the effects of AVFs on myocardial oxygen supply and demand surrogates.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0585">18</a> Diastolic pressure time index (DPTI), systolic pressure time index (SPTI), and the DPTI/SPTI ratio were used as indirect measures of myocardial supply, myocardial demand and subendocardial perfusion, respectively. The increase in oxygen demand due to the AVF-related increased CO was ameliorated by the decrease in oxygen demand due to the decreased peripheral vascular resistance caused by the AVF. The net effect on cardiac oxygen demand was neutral. However, cardiac oxygen supply and, therefore subendocardial perfusion, were both significantly reduced in patients with functioning AVFs. Manual compression of AVFs was associated with improved subendocardial perfusion surrogates.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0585">18,77</a> Despite the methodological limitations, these studies suggest a possible negative effect of AVF on subendocardial perfusion. However, confirmatory studies with invasive hemodynamic measurements or advanced imaging tools have not been reported.Impact of AVF on coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)In patients with ESRD who undergo hemodialysis via an upper extremity AVF ipsilateral to the internal mammary artery (IMA) used for CABG, both the bypass graft and the fistula are supplied by the subclavian artery. During hemodialysis, the AVF flow is significant, and can lead to shunting of blood away from the IMA graft (steal phenomenon). There are several reports of symptomatic IMA steal during dialysis session in patients with upper arm (brachio-cephalic) AVFs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0885">78,79</a> Using echocardiography, Gaudino et al. elegantly demonstrated a significant decrease in IMA flow and hypokinesis of the anterior wall of the LV upon initiation of hemodialysis via an ipsilateral AVF in five patients. Both of these findings were reversed when the dialysis machine was turned off.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0895">80</a> Conversely, using similar methodology, two studies found that changes in the AVF flow did not significantly alter Doppler flow hemodynamics of either the ipsilateral or contralateral in situ IMA.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0900">81,82</a>The clinical impact of this potential ‘steal’ phenomenon on clinical outcomes was recently studied.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0910">83,84</a> Takami et al. retrospectively compared outcomes of 155 hemodialysis patients whose left anterior descending artery (LAD) was revascularized with the IMA ipsilateral to the AVF (ipsilateral group) and those whose LAD was grafted with the IMA opposite to the fistula (contralateral group).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0915">84</a> The overall 5-year survival and cardiac event-free rates were 58% and 74% in the ipsilateral group vs. 65% and 68% in the contralateral group, respectively (p=0.90 and p=0.07). A similar study by Feldman et al. showed comparable survival rates by higher non-fatal cardiac events in the ipsilateral group compared with the contralateral group (81.2% vs. 64%, p=0.023).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0910">83</a> Despite the conflicting evidence, it seems reasonable avoid, when possible, using an IMA coronary artery bypass graft ipsilateral to the AVF. Similarly, placing AVF in a patient with a functioning IMA would be better performed on the contralateral upper extremity.Another cause for concern in hemodialysis patients with AVFs who are undergoing CABG is the possible interference of AVFs with the integrity of the cardiopulmonary bypass circuit. The excessive venous return to the heart due to high-flow AVFs, can compromise the myocardial protection offered by cardiopulmonary bypass, and lead to impromptu alterations in the surgical plan. In one case, the AVF had to be tied off after CABG to allow successful weaning of cardiopulmonary bypass.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0920">85</a> In another case, selective bicaval cannulation was needed to prevent cardiac distention due to the significant left to right shunting of blood via a functional AVF.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0925">86</a>AVFs and valvular heart diseaseValvular heart disease is common among patient on hemodialysis with a prevalence of 39–43%.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510">3</a> The majority of valvular abnormalities (aortic stenosis, aortic regurgitation, mitral regurgitation and tricuspid regurgitation) are sensitive to volume overload. Despite that, data on the effects of AVF-associated volume load on patients with valvular heart disease is limited to patients with aortic stenosis (AS).<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0930">87,88</a>Effects of AVF on aortic stenosisSignificant aortic stenosis is present in 3.3% of hemodialysis patients >65 years of age compared with 1–2% in the general population. Also, severe AS is rare in non-ESRD patients who are less than 50 but occurs in 3% of ESRD patients of similar age.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0940">89</a>There are two potential effects of AVFs on patients with severe AS: (1) the coexistence of AS and an AVF could complicate the assessment of the severity of aortic valve disease. Cardiac output has significant impact on the assessment of transaortic valve gradient in AS.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0945">90</a> In a patient with ESRD and suspected severe AS, manual compression of the AVF dropped the mean transaortic valve gradient from 45mmHg to 30mmHg.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0930">87</a> (2) The increase in CO associated with the creation of AVF can lead to acute or sub acute decompensation in patients with significant AS who had no symptoms or were minimally symptomatic prior to AVF surgery.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0935">88</a>Is closing AVFs beneficial to the heart?Preserving dialysis access is a priority to both dialysis patients and their physicians. Closing AVFs in patients undergoing hemodialysis has been reserved for those with apparent access failure or apparent access-related complications.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640">29</a> The management of AVFs in patients who underwent successful KT is a topic of ongoing debate.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0950">91–93</a> Most transplant physicians currently suggest that AVF closure is not routinely required in KT recipients with stable renal allograft function.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0950">91,94</a> Others believe that AVF closure is associated with significant beneficial effects on cardiac functions and on allograft survival.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580">17,19,93,95,96</a> The benefit of AVF closure should be weighed against the small but the known potential life threatening complications associated with the closure procedure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0980">97</a> A number of studies examined the effects of spontaneous or planned post-KT AVF closure on echocardiographic indices (LV wall mass index, wall thickness, and LVEDD). The potential impact of fistula closure on clinical outcomes was also investigated in a smaller number of studies. A summary of these studies is provided in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>.<elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia>Effects on echocardiographic parametersSpontaneous closure of AVFs (due to thrombosis), can result in a significant reduction in CO, LV wall mass index (LVMI), and LVEDD.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975">96</a> Similar benefits were observed in patients who underwent planned surgical AVF closure due to graft dysfunction,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580">17</a> cardiovascular deragments,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590">19</a> or as part of a research protocol.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700">41</a> Contrary to these findings, other studies found no significant effects of spontaneous or planned AVF closure on echocardiographic indices.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600">21,91,94,98</a>Effects on clinical outcomesIn a large cohort of patients who underwent KT, the incidence of AVF-related complications requiring an intervention was 12.5% at 4 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955">92</a> In these patients, cardiac decompensation and distal arm hypoperfusion constituted 16.2% of all complications. Transplant allograft survival was positively affected by AVF closure in one study,<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0960">93</a> but was not different in another.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985">98</a> In all-comers, AVF closure was not associated with a mortality benefit at 10 years.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985">98</a> Only one study explored the effects of AVF closure on clinical outcomes in patients with refractory heart failure.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0970">95</a> In this study 30 patients with AVF and 3 with arteriovenous grafts were referred for access closure due to refractory CHF. There was an immediate significant improvement in CHF symptoms in 70% of patients (responders), but no benefit was seen in the other 30% (non-responders). The non-responders had higher prevalence of ischemic heart disease and longer durations since their AVF creation. Those who responded had better survival at 1 year, but had similar mortality rates as the non-responders at 5 years.ConclusionThere are currently near 400,000 patients on hemodialysis and 180,000 kidney transplant recipients in the United States.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525">6</a> The majorities of these patients have cardiovascular disease and have functional AVFs.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500">1,2,5</a> Arteriovenous fistulas are associated with lower mortality and are viewed as the desired access option in most patients with ESRD needing dialysis.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515">4</a> Arteriovenous fistulas are well tolerated by most patients. However, the potentially deleterious effects of AVFs, particularly in the setting of preexisting heart disease should not be underestimated. A multidisciplinary evaluation of patients with known heart disease before AVF creation is warranted. Additionally, in patients who develop dyspnea, heart failure, or pulmonary hypertension, AVF revision should be considered as an important therapeutic option, especially in those who underwent successful kidney transplantation.Conflict of interestThe authors declare no conflict of interest." "textoCompletoSecciones" => array:1 [ "secciones" => array:16 [ 0 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres576982" "titulo" => "Abstract" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0005" ] ] ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593610" "titulo" => "Keywords" ] 2 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "xres576983" "titulo" => "Resumen" "secciones" => array:1 [ 0 => array:1 [ "identificador" => "abst0010" ] ] ] 3 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593611" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" ] 4 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0005" "titulo" => "AVFs and congestive heart failure" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0010" "titulo" => "Risk of worsening heart failure after AVF" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0015" "titulo" => "Risk of developing de novo heart failure after AVF" ] ] ] 5 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0020" "titulo" => "AVFs and left ventricular hypertrophy" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0025" "titulo" => "AVFs and pulmonary hypertension" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0030" "titulo" => "The effects of volume overload" ] ] ] 6 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0035" "titulo" => "AVFs and right ventricular dysfunction" ] 7 => array:3 [ "identificador" => "sec0040" "titulo" => "AVFs and coronary artery disease" "secciones" => array:2 [ 0 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0045" "titulo" => "Impact of AVF on coronary ischemia" ] 1 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0050" "titulo" => "Impact of AVF on coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)" ] ] ] 8 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0055" "titulo" => "AVFs and valvular heart disease" ] 9 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0060" "titulo" => "Effects of AVF on aortic stenosis" ] 10 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0065" "titulo" => "Is closing AVFs beneficial to the heart?" ] 11 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0070" "titulo" => "Effects on echocardiographic parameters" ] 12 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0075" "titulo" => "Effects on clinical outcomes" ] 13 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0080" "titulo" => "Conclusion" ] 14 => array:2 [ "identificador" => "sec0085" "titulo" => "Conflict of interest" ] 15 => array:1 [ "titulo" => "References" ] ] ] "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf" "tienePdf" => true "fechaRecibido" => "2014-07-28" "fechaAceptado" => "2015-03-23" "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [ "en" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Keywords" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593610" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Hemodialysis vascular access" 1 => "Cardiovascular" 2 => "Fistula" 3 => "Kidney transplantation" ] ] ] "es" => array:1 [ 0 => array:4 [ "clase" => "keyword" "titulo" => "Palabras clave" "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593611" "palabras" => array:4 [ 0 => "Acceso vascular para hemodiálisis" 1 => "Cardiovascular" 2 => "Fístula" 3 => "Trasplante renal" ] ] ] ] "tieneResumen" => true "resumen" => array:2 [ "en" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Abstract" "resumen" => "Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of the death in dialysis patients. Arteriovenous fistulas (AVFs) are associated with lower mortality and are viewed as the desired access option in most patients with advanced kidney disease needing dialysis. However, AVFs have significant and potentially deleterious effects on cardiac functions particularly in the setting of preexisting heart disease. This article provides a comprehensive and contemporary review to what is known about the impact of AVFs on: congestive heart failure, left ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular dysfunction, coronary artery disease and valvular heart disease." ] "es" => array:2 [ "titulo" => "Resumen" "resumen" => "La enfermedad cardiovascular es la principal causa de muerte en los pacientes dializados. Las fístulas arteriovenosas (FAV) se asocian a una menor mortalidad y se consideran la opción preferible de vía de acceso en la mayor parte de los pacientes con enfermedad renal avanzada que requieren diálisis. Sin embargo, las FAV tienen efectos importantes y potencialmente nocivos sobre las funciones cardíacas, en especial en presencia de una cardiopatía preexistente. En este artículo se presenta una revisión completa y actualizada de los conocimientos existentes sobre las repercusiones que tienen las FAV en los trastornos de: insuficiencia cardiaca congestiva, hipertrofia ventricular izquierda, hipertensión pulmonar, disfunción ventricular derecha, enfermedad coronaria y valvulopatías cardíacas." ] ] "multimedia" => array:1 [ 0 => array:7 [ "identificador" => "tbl0005" "etiqueta" => "Table 1" "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA" "mostrarFloat" => true "mostrarDisplay" => false "tabla" => array:1 [ "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [ 0 => array:2 [ "tabla" => array:1 [ 0 => """ <table border="0" frame="\n \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Study \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Design \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Number of patients \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Reason for access closure \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Fistula vintage before KT \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Follow up \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Echocardiographic parameters \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Clinical outcomes \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Vajdic Trampuz et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955">92</a>2013 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective single arm (evaluation of complications of functional AVF post-KT) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">592 KT patients \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">42 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">48 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Complications occurred in 74 patients (12.5%):Painful thrombosis 43.2%Growing aneurysms 27%Venous hypertension 8.1% distal Hypoperfusion 8.1% cardiac failure 8.1% \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Solaimani et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0950">91</a>2012 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">23 with functional AVF vs. 17 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 34Planned closure in 4*(out of these patients 17 were included in the study) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">30 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">14 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF: significant reduction in IVS (1.16±0.11 vs. 1.10±0.11cm, p=0.002) and PW thickness (1.17±0.11 vs. 1.10±0.11cm, p=0.001) thickness but no significant change in LVEDD (4.87±0.38 vs. 4.85±0.47cm, p>0.05)Patients with persistent AVF: no difference \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Głowiński et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0990">99</a>2012 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective case–controlled \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">9 matched pairs \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 4 planned closure in 5 for cosmetic reasons \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">24 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">11 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference after AVF closure in IVS and PW thickness, LVEDD, LVWMI in both groups \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Kurita et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0745">50</a>2011 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective single arm \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">30 functional AVF and 3 with functional grafts \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure due to refractory heart failure \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">36 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">60 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference after AVF closure in IVS and PW thickness, LVEDD, LVWMI \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">70% had symptomatic improvement (responders). Responders had better early survival but 5-years survival was similar in both groups \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Movilli et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580">17</a>2010 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">35 with functional AVF and 25 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure due to malfunction \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">56 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">6 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF: significant reduction in IVS and PW thickness (11.8±2.1 vs. 11.0±2.2cm, and 10.8±1.7 vs. 10.0±1.9cm, p<0.001). LVEDD and LVWMI also significantly decreased (51±4 vs. 49±4 and 135±40 vs. 123±23g/m2). p<0.001 for all.Patients with persistent AVF: no difference \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Vajdic et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0960">93</a>2010 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective(evaluation of effects of persistent AVF on allografts after KT) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">239 with functional AVF and 72 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 70 planned closure in 2* \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">70 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">5 years allograft survival was 60% in patients with persistent AVF vs. 75% in those with closed AVF (p=0.045). Persistent AVF was an independent risk factor for allograft loss (HR 1.336; 95% CI, 1.018 –1.755; p=0.037) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Cridlig et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975">96</a>2008 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective case–controlled \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">38 matched pairs \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 23Planned closure in 4*Previously closed in 11(9 on PD, 2 with tunneled catheters) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">23 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">65 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Compared with those with closed AVF, patients with persistent AVF had: more PW thickness (12.2±1.7 vs.11.5±1.8cm, p=0.007), larger LVEDD(52.1±7.1 vs. 48.5±6.0, p=0.02), and higher LVMI (135.1±30.3 vs. 112.4±28g/m2, p=0.001). \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Sheashaa et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985">98</a>2004 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">34 with functional AVF and 17 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in all \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">17 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">12 months, echo120 months, clinical \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">No difference in IVS and PW thickness, LVEDD, and LVMI between the two groups \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference in death or allograft survival between the two groups \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Unger et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590">19</a>2004 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">8 with functional AVF and 17 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure for CHF (n=10), venous hypertension (n=6), and/or cosmetic reasons (n=5) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">88 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">32 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF: significant reduction in LVEDD (29.5±3.4 vs. 26.2±3.2mm, p=0.017) and LVWMI 139±44 to 117±40g/m2, p<0.001) at 21 months. No significant difference in IVS and PW thickness.Patients with persistent AVF: no difference \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">VanDuijnhoven et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955">92</a>2001 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Prospective interventional \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">22 with functional AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Planned closures in all ** (excluded CHF patients) \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">104 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">46 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">After 3 months of AVF closure:Both LVEDD and LVWMI decreased: (51.5±5.8 vs. 49±5.4mm, p<0.01) and (135±34 vs. 119.8±23g/m2, p<0.01), respectively. No significant difference in IVS and PW thickness. \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">NR \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Delima et al.<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600">21</a>1999 \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">39 with functional AVF and 22 with closed AVF \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure for cosmetic reasons within 2 months of KT in all \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">62 months, group I 36 months, group II \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">14 months \t\t\t\t\t\t\n \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry " align="left" valign="top">Compared with those with closed AVF, patients with persistent AVF had higher LVEDD (52.7±4.8 vs. 49.2±4.6, p=0.007). 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Brief review

Complicaciones cardiacas de las fístulas arteriovenosas en pacientes con enfermedad renal terminal

Mohamad Alkhoulia,

Corresponding author

adnanalkhouli@gmail.com
mohamad_alkhouli@urmc.rochester.edu

Corresponding author.

, Paul Sandhub, Khlaed Boobesc, Kamel Hatahetd, Farhan Razae, Yousef Boobesf

a Cardiology Department, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA

b Department of Internal Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA

c Department of Nephrology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

d Department of Nephrology, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA

e Cardiology Department, Temple University Hospital, Philadelphia, PA, USA

f Twam Hospital, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

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    "textoCompleto" => "<span class="elsevierStyleSections"><p id="par0005" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of the death in patients receiving chronic renal replacement therapy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#8211;3</span></a> Arteriovenous fistulas &#40;AVFs&#41; have superior longevity&#44; lower infection and mortality rates and are associated with lower cost&#44; and hence have become the vascular access of choice for patients needing dialysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Indeed&#44; the prevalence of AVFs in the United States increased from 32&#37; of all dialysis access in 2003 to 61&#37; in 2012&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0520"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">5&#44;6</span></a> Despite their association with a lower mortality&#44; AVFs have significant effects on cardiac functions predominantly related to the increase in preload and cardiac output &#40;CO&#41;&#46; This article reviews the potential effects of the creation and the ligation of AVFs on cardiac function and their mechanisms&#46;</p><p id="par0010" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It should be emphasized&#44; at the outset&#44; that determining the exact effects of AVFs on cardiac functions is fraught with problems for a couple of reasons&#58; patients with end stage renal disease &#40;ESRD&#41; requiring dialysis almost invariably have volume overload due to water and salt retention&#46; They also have pressure load due to arterial sclerosis and hypertension&#44; and increased CO secondary to chronic anemia&#46; In addition&#44; many hemodialysis patients have significant pre-existing myocardial&#44; valvular or coronary heart disease&#46; It is&#44; therefore&#44; often difficult to tease out the exact contribution of an AVF to cardiac dysfunction in hemodialysis patients&#46; Nevertheless&#44; worsening in cardiac functions soon after AVF creation has been observed favoring a causative effect of the AVF on certain cardiac functions&#46; The current literature suggests that the creation of AVF can cause or exacerbate the following conditions&#58; congestive heart failure&#44; left ventricular hypertrophy&#44; pulmonary hypertension&#44; right ventricular dysfunction&#44; coronary artery disease&#44; and valvular dysfunction&#46;</p><span id="sec0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0025">AVFs and congestive heart failure</span><p id="par0015" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Congestive heart failure &#40;CHF&#41; is highly prevalent among patients with ESRD&#46; Approximately 35&#8211;40&#37; of patients with ESRD have an established CHF diagnosis at initiation of hemodialysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;3&#44;7&#8211;9</span></a> Patients with ESRD and CHF have a far worse prognosis than those without CHF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;10</span></a> Since hemodynamic optimization is the corner stone of managing patients with ESRD as well as those with CHF&#44; studying the hemodynamic effects of AVFs in patients with ESRD with and without CHF is a sensible task&#46;</p><p id="par0020" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Long before we utilized AVFs for hemodialysis access&#44; the hemodynamic effects of AVFs were studied in patients who developed AVFs secondary to trauma AVFs&#46; In these patients&#44; the development of an AVF was noted to be associated with an apparent increase in CO&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0550"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">11&#44;12</span></a> The introduction of the &#8216;man-made&#8217; AVFs for hemodialysis access provided more insight into the hemodynamic effects of these fistulas&#58; First&#44; the creation of an AVF leads to shunting of blood flow from the high resistance arterial system into the low resistance venous system&#44; with a subsequent rise in venous return and CO&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></a> Second&#44; the presence of an AVF decreases arterial impedance and thus lessens the left ventricular afterload&#46; The lowering of arterial impendence may also reduce the effective circulating volume of the systemic circulation&#44; activating arterial baroreceptors&#44; and leading to secondary increase in cardiac sympathetic tone&#44; contractility&#44; and CO&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0565"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">14&#8211;16</span></a> The net effect of AVFs is a significant increase in CO&#46;</p><p id="par0025" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Many studies investigated the impact of AVFs on echocardiographic indices of cardiac morphology and function&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;16&#8211;21</span></a> These studies consistently showed an increase in LV end-diastolic dimension &#40;LVEDD&#41;&#44; contractility&#44; stroke volume and CO within 7&#8211;10 days after the surgical construction of AVF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;18</span></a> Diastolic filling parameters &#40;E to A ratio&#41; were also impaired&#44; indicative of worsening diastolic functions&#46; On average&#44; the creation of an AVF increases CO by 15&#8211;20&#37; and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure by 5&#8211;10&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0575"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span></a> Additionally&#44; biomarkers secreted in response to hypervolemia such as atrial naturietic peptide &#40;ANP&#41; and brain naturietic peptide &#40;BNP&#41;&#44; are both substantially increased&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14</span></a> suggesting the presence of an cardiac volume overload despite an optimal overall body volume status&#46;</p><p id="par0030" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The impact of these physiological effects of AVF on the cardiac function is controversial&#46; While many studies suggested that the decreased vascular resistance and the increased CO are predisposing factors for the development or the worsening of heart failure&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0540"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span></a> others suggested that the decrease in peripheral resistance and blood pressure with a parallel increase in ejection fraction could be potentially beneficial&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0605"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span></a></p><span id="sec0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0030">Risk of worsening heart failure after AVF</span><p id="par0035" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There is no standard definition for high output CHF&#46; The literature is inconclusive with regards to the incidence of worsening CHF after AVF creation&#46; Most authors believe that the incidence of high output CHF among hemodialysis patients with AVFs is low&#44; and that most patients with ESRD tolerate AVFs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;24</span></a> This belief is supported by the fact that the literature on high output CHF in ESRD patients is limited to case reports and small series<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0620"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#8211;28</span></a> and that corrective measures &#40;AVF banding or surgical ligation&#41; due to AVF-related cardiac derangement are uncommon&#46; Dixon et al&#46; noted that the rate of AVF banding due to worsening CHF in a cohort of 204 patients &#40;322 accesses&#41; was only 2&#46;6&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> On the other hand&#44; some authors suggest that high output CHF is not uncommon but is often overlooked&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0625"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">26&#44;30</span></a> These authors argue that when cardiac deterioration occur in hemodialysis patients&#44; it is usually attributed to the many risk factors that are highly prevalent in this population&#44; and that the exact contribution of AVF to the worsening in cardiac functions is often not carefully sought&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;3&#44;7&#8211;9</span></a> This is especially in patients with a long-standing AVFs&#44; although AVF-related worsening CHF has been reported up to 10 years after AVF formation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0650"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span></a></p><p id="par0040" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">It should be emphasized that most ESRD patients tolerate AVF well&#46; However&#44; given the deleterious outcomes in those who do not tolerate AVF&#44; substantial efforts have been made to identify that small fraction of patients who are at risk for cardiac decompensation and high output CHF&#46; There is compelling evidence that the development of high output CHF in ESRD patients with prior clinical or subclinical heart failure&#44; is proportional to the vascular access flow &#40;Qa&#41;&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;32&#44;33</span></a> Most cases of high output CHF were reported in patients with Qa<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0655"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span></a> Upper arm &#40;brachiocephalic&#41; AVFs have twice the flow or lower arm &#40;radiocephalic&#41; AVFs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0665"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span></a> Macrae et al&#46; noted that the average Qa in upper arm AVFs among ESRD patients enrolled in several studies was 1&#46;13&#8211;1&#46;72<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> In the same cohort&#44; 15&#37; of patients had a Qa<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>l&#47;min&#46; The ratio of access flow &#40;Qa&#41; to CO can be also be used to predict the risk of worsening CHF&#46; A functional upper arm AVF has an average Qa&#47;CO of 22&#37;&#46; Based on anecdotal experience&#44; high output heart failure was associated with a Qa&#47;CO of &#62;40&#37; in most cases&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0660"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span></a> However&#44; from an epidemiological point of view&#44; high Qa is not clearly associated with an increase in mortality&#46; In an interesting study by Al-Ghonaim et al&#46;&#44; there was no increased risk of death at higher levels of Qa&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0670"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0015" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0035">Risk of developing de novo heart failure after AVF</span><p id="par0045" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although some authors postulate that cardiac decompensation in ESRD patients with AVFs occurs only in individuals with previously established chronic heart disease&#44; there is evidence that AVF creation is a major risk factor for developing a new onset CHF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3&#44;26&#44;33&#44;36</span></a> In the HEMO study&#44; symptoms of CHF developed de novo during dialysis therapy in 17&#37; of the patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> Albeit this could be purely due to the high prevalence of risk factors for developing CHF in the ESRD population&#44; an independent effect of AVFs has been suggested&#46; In an observational study of 562 pre-dialysis patients&#44; the creation of AVF was more predictive of the development of decompensated CHF than a history of established CHF &#40;odd ratio&#58; 9&#46;54 vs&#46; 2&#46;52&#44; respectively&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0675"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">36</span></a> The median time between the creation of the AVF and the first episode of CHF was 51 days &#40;range&#58; 26&#8211;138&#41;&#46; The location of AVF was&#44; expectantly&#44; closely related to the incidence of new CHF &#40;40&#37; in brachio-cephalic vs&#46; 8&#37; in radio-cephalic AVF&#41;&#46;</p></span></span><span id="sec0020" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0040">AVFs and left ventricular hypertrophy</span><p id="par0050" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Left ventricular &#40;LV&#41; hypertrophy is highly prevalent among patients with ESRD&#44; and is a strong predictor of morbidity and mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0680"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a> Although it is mainly a result of chronic systemic hypertension&#44; volume overload and anemia&#44; the presence of an AVF has a non-negligible effect on LV hypertrophy&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0685"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span></a> Arteriovenous fistulas increase CO and lead to significant increases in both left ventricular wall mass and diameter in the long-term&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;20&#44;39&#44;40</span></a> Furthermore&#44; LV hypertrophy tends to persist in patients who had successful kidney transplantation &#40;KT&#41; but have a remaining functional AVF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0680"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">37&#44;38</span></a> Closure of AVFs post-transplant has been shown to be associated with significant regression of LV hypertrophy&#44; despite the observed post-closure increase in both systolic and diastolic blood pressure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;19&#44;41&#44;42</span></a> This regression in LV mass starts as early as 3&#8211;10 weeks after fistula closure and becomes more pronounced at intermediate and long-term follow up&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;42</span></a> Although it is intuitive to speculate that regression of LV hypertrophy will lead to fewer cardiovascular events&#44; a direct beneficial effect has not been proven&#46; In fact&#44; some authors believe that the potential benefit of such regression in LV mass after fistula closure might be blunted by the observed shift from a predominately eccentric hypertrophy to a predominantly concentric hypertrophy&#44; a pattern that is known to be associated with worse long term outcomes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;19</span></a></p><span id="sec0025" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0045">AVFs and pulmonary hypertension</span><p id="par0055" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Pulmonary hypertension &#40;PH&#41; complicates ESRD with a prevalence of 12&#8211;45&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0615"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">24&#44;43</span></a> The presence of PH in the dialysis population confers 2&#8211;3 folds increase in all-cause mortality&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#8211;45</span></a> In the majority of these patients&#44; PH is post-capillary &#40;pulmonary venous hypertension &#8211; World Health Organization Class II&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0725"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span></a> Patients on hemodialysis have several risk factors for developing PH&#58; LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction&#44; volume overload&#44; endothelial dysfunction and sleep-discorded breathing&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0570"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span></a> However&#44; the presence of an AVF has been shown to be an independent risk factor for the development of PH in ESRD patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;43&#44;47&#44;48</span></a> Paneni et al&#46; compared echocardiography-derived peak systolic pulmonary artery pressure &#40;PAP&#41; between patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis &#40;PD&#41;&#44; and those receiving hemodialysis with radial and brachial AVFs&#46; Systolic PAP was 29&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;7&#44; 37&#46;9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;7 and 40&#46;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;6<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm Hg&#44; respectively &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> In concordance with these findings&#44; several other studies found a much less prevalence of PH in patients receiving PD compared to matched cohorts of patients undergoing hemodialysis via AVF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;43&#44;48&#44;49</span></a> The mechanisms of AVF-related PH deserve more scrutiny&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0030" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0050">The effects of volume overload</span><p id="par0060" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">As discussed previously&#44; AVFs lead to decreased systemic vascular resistances&#44; increased venous return&#44; and therefore increased pulmonary blood and enhanced CO setting the stage for load-related PH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0560"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;17&#44;18&#44;20</span></a> This theory has been supported by several studies that demonstrated a temporal relationship between PAP rise and AVF creation&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#8211;52</span></a> These studies also showed a significant association between both the duration of AVF and the fistula flow with the severity of PH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0740"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">49&#44;50&#44;52</span></a> Upper arm AVFs&#44; known to have higher flow than lower arm AVFs&#44; are associated with higher risk of developing PH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;50</span></a> Compression of the AVFs by a sphygmomanometer&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;53</span></a> and surgical closure of the AVFs&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0765"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">54</span></a> both induce a rapid decrease in CO followed by a stable decrease in PAP&#46; The late drop in PAP could be more pronounced than the initial drop when manual compression of an AVF is undertaken&#46; In a case series of five patients in whom manual compression of the AVF in the catheterization laboratory was performed to predict a successful surgical closure&#44; the chronic drop in CO following surgical AVF closure was 4 fold greater than the fall in CO seen during acute manual compression of the fistula &#40;F&#46; Raza&#44; personal communication&#41;&#46; Contrary to these findings&#44; no association between the presence of AVFs or fistula flow and PAP was found in two small studies&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0610"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;24</span></a></p><p id="par0065" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Although AVF-associated volume overload seems to be the prime mechanism in development of PH in the hemodialysis population&#44; the ability of an AVF alone to cause PH has been questioned&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> The pulmonary circuit has an enormous capacity and is usually able to tolerate significant volume loads before it decompensates&#46; Hence&#44; it has been proposed that in patients who develop PH after AVF creation&#44; a baseline pulmonary vascular dysfunction is present leading to failure of the pulmonary circuit to accommodate the AVF-mediated elevated CO&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0710"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span></a> This assumption is supported by two observations&#58; &#40;1&#41; Patients without kidney disease or other significant co-morbidities are able to tolerate traumatic AVFs for a long time before they develop symptoms of PH or heart failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0770"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">55&#8211;58</span></a> &#40;2&#41; Kidney transplantation may revert PAP to normal in patients who still have a functioning AVF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0760"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">53</span></a></p><p id="par0070" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Endothelial dysfunction has been suggested as an alternative or additive etiology for the development of pulmonary hypertension in patients with AVF&#46; The vascular endothelium has complex and important physiological functions including controlling the vascular tone&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0790"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">59&#44;60</span></a> Several studies have shown that patients with ESRD have impaired nitric oxide &#40;NO&#41; production&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0800"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">61</span></a> and increased endothelin-1 &#40;ET-1&#41; activity<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0805"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62</span></a> both of which have been implicated in the pathophysiology of PH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0810"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">63</span></a> The impaired NO production in dialysis patients is thought to be secondary to the reduced bioavailability of NO substrate <span class="elsevierStyleSmallCaps">l</span>-arginine&#44; and the accumulation of endogenous inhibitors of NO synthase&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0815"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span></a> The lack of the vasodilator properties of NO could contribute to an increased vascular tone and eventually to the causation of PH&#46; Another potential cause of endothelial dysfunction in dialysis patients is the vascular wall shear stress associated with hemodialysis-related abnormal hemodynamics&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0805"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62&#44;65</span></a> In non-dialysis patients with chronic left to right blood shunts &#40;e&#46;g&#46; patients with congenital heart disease&#41;&#44; blood shunting augments wall shear stress which leads to endothelial damage&#44; vascular remodeling and PH&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0820"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">65&#44;66</span></a> Similar effects can be suggested in hemodialysis patients with functional AVFs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0805"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">62&#44;67</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0035" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0055">AVFs and right ventricular dysfunction</span><p id="par0075" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The prevalence and pathophysiology of PH in patients on hemodialysis has been extensively studied&#46; However&#44; data on the development of right ventricular &#40;RV&#41; dysfunction in ESRD patients with AVF is scarce&#46;</p><p id="par0080" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">A few recent studies examined the effect of AVFs on echocardiographic parameters of RV dysfunction&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;68&#44;69</span></a> Paneni et al&#46; studied the prevalence of RV dysfunction in 94 patients on hemodialysis and 26 patients on PD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a> In this study&#44; Tissue Doppler-derived myocardial performance index &#40;MPI&#41; was used as an indicator of global RV function&#46; Myocardial performance index has been found to be more sensitive and less load-dependent than other echo indices in predicting RV dysfunction and adverse clinical outcomes&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0845"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">70&#44;71</span></a> Right ventricular ejection fraction was preserved in the majority of patients across all subgroups&#46; Right ventricular dysfunction &#40;defined with an MPI<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;53&#41; was&#44; however&#44; more prevalent in hemodialysis patients compared with PD patients &#40;71&#46;3 vs&#46; 34&#46;6&#37;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46; The prevalence of RV dysfunction further increased in patients with brachial AVF compared with the radial access &#40;90&#46;6&#37; vs&#46; 61&#46;3&#37;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46; Logistic regression analysis adjusting for confounding factors including PAP showed that patients carrying AVFs displayed an increased risk of RV dysfunction when compared to the PD group &#91;OR&#58; 6&#46;3 &#40;95&#37; CI&#58; 2&#46;0&#8211;19&#46;5&#41;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#93;&#46; Again&#44; the risk of RV dysfunction was further enhanced in patients with brachial AVF compared to those with the radial fistulas &#91;OR&#58; 5&#46;9 &#40;95&#37; CI&#58; 1&#46;5&#8211;23&#46;1&#41;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#93;&#46; In another study of 41 HD patients with AVFs&#44; RV dysfunction &#40;defined by an MPI of &#62;0&#46;55&#41;&#44; was present in 18 patients &#40;44&#37;&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0835"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">68</span></a> In keeping with the findings by Paneni et al&#46;&#44; the presence of AVF was associated with RV dysfunction independent of PAP values&#46; DiLullo et al&#46; also demonstrated that AVFs were associated with impaired RV systolic function &#40;assessed by tricuspid annular plane excursion &#8211; TAPSE&#41; and significant RV chamber dilatation compared to those dialyzed via central venous catheters&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0840"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">69</span></a></p><p id="par0085" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The presence of RV dysfunction independent of PAP values&#44; argues against a major role for PH in the development of RV dysfunction in ESRD patients&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47&#44;68</span></a> It also suggests that AVF-dependent volume overload may by itself play a major role in triggering RV dysfunction in patients undergoing hemodialysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0730"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">47</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0040" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0060">AVFs and coronary artery disease</span><p id="par0090" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Significant coronary artery disease &#40;CAD&#41; is found in 30&#8211;40&#37; of ESRD patients on hemodialysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0505"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">2&#44;9&#44;72</span></a> Compared with non-dialysis CAD patients&#44; those on hemodialysis have substantially higher cardiac mortality&#44; and poorer outcomes when undergoing percutaneous or surgical revascularization&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0860"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">73&#44;74</span></a></p><p id="par0095" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The concern with AVFs in patients with CAD is three-fold&#58; &#40;1&#41; the potential to provoke silent subendocardial myocardial ischemia due to increased oxygen demand and&#47;or decrease oxygen supply&#46; &#40;2&#41; The possible negative impact of AVFs on ipsilateral internal mammary artery &#40;IMA&#41; bypass graft&#44; due to distal steal&#46; &#40;3&#41; The interference of AVFs with cardiopulmonary bypass in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass &#40;CABG&#41; surgery&#46;</p><span id="sec0045" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0065">Impact of AVF on coronary ischemia</span><p id="par0100" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In dog studies&#44; high-flow AVFs were associated with decrease subendocardial coronary perfusion mainly due to decreased diastolic pressure and shortening of the diastolic period&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0870"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">75&#44;76</span></a> An interesting study by savage et al&#46; used filtered non-fistula arm finger pressure recordings to examine the effects of AVFs on myocardial oxygen supply and demand surrogates&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span></a> Diastolic pressure time index &#40;DPTI&#41;&#44; systolic pressure time index &#40;SPTI&#41;&#44; and the DPTI&#47;SPTI ratio were used as indirect measures of myocardial supply&#44; myocardial demand and subendocardial perfusion&#44; respectively&#46; The increase in oxygen demand due to the AVF-related increased CO was ameliorated by the decrease in oxygen demand due to the decreased peripheral vascular resistance caused by the AVF&#46; The net effect on cardiac oxygen demand was neutral&#46; However&#44; cardiac oxygen supply and&#44; therefore subendocardial perfusion&#44; were both significantly reduced in patients with functioning AVFs&#46; Manual compression of AVFs was associated with improved subendocardial perfusion surrogates&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0585"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;77</span></a> Despite the methodological limitations&#44; these studies suggest a possible negative effect of AVF on subendocardial perfusion&#46; However&#44; confirmatory studies with invasive hemodynamic measurements or advanced imaging tools have not been reported&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0050" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0070">Impact of AVF on coronary artery bypass grafting &#40;CABG&#41;</span><p id="par0105" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In patients with ESRD who undergo hemodialysis via an upper extremity AVF ipsilateral to the internal mammary artery &#40;IMA&#41; used for CABG&#44; both the bypass graft and the fistula are supplied by the subclavian artery&#46; During hemodialysis&#44; the AVF flow is significant&#44; and can lead to shunting of blood away from the IMA graft &#40;steal phenomenon&#41;&#46; There are several reports of symptomatic IMA steal during dialysis session in patients with upper arm &#40;brachio-cephalic&#41; AVFs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0885"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">78&#44;79</span></a> Using echocardiography&#44; Gaudino et al&#46; elegantly demonstrated a significant decrease in IMA flow and hypokinesis of the anterior wall of the LV upon initiation of hemodialysis via an ipsilateral AVF in five patients&#46; Both of these findings were reversed when the dialysis machine was turned off&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0895"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">80</span></a> Conversely&#44; using similar methodology&#44; two studies found that changes in the AVF flow did not significantly alter Doppler flow hemodynamics of either the ipsilateral or contralateral in situ IMA&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0900"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">81&#44;82</span></a></p><p id="par0110" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The clinical impact of this potential &#8216;steal&#8217; phenomenon on clinical outcomes was recently studied&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0910"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">83&#44;84</span></a> Takami et al&#46; retrospectively compared outcomes of 155 hemodialysis patients whose left anterior descending artery &#40;LAD&#41; was revascularized with the IMA ipsilateral to the AVF &#40;ipsilateral group&#41; and those whose LAD was grafted with the IMA opposite to the fistula &#40;contralateral group&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0915"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">84</span></a> The overall 5-year survival and cardiac event-free rates were 58&#37; and 74&#37; in the ipsilateral group vs&#46; 65&#37; and 68&#37; in the contralateral group&#44; respectively &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;90 and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;07&#41;&#46; A similar study by Feldman et al&#46; showed comparable survival rates by higher non-fatal cardiac events in the ipsilateral group compared with the contralateral group &#40;81&#46;2&#37; vs&#46; 64&#37;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;023&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0910"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">83</span></a> Despite the conflicting evidence&#44; it seems reasonable avoid&#44; when possible&#44; using an IMA coronary artery bypass graft ipsilateral to the AVF&#46; Similarly&#44; placing AVF in a patient with a functioning IMA would be better performed on the contralateral upper extremity&#46;</p><p id="par0115" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Another cause for concern in hemodialysis patients with AVFs who are undergoing CABG is the possible interference of AVFs with the integrity of the cardiopulmonary bypass circuit&#46; The excessive venous return to the heart due to high-flow AVFs&#44; can compromise the myocardial protection offered by cardiopulmonary bypass&#44; and lead to impromptu alterations in the surgical plan&#46; In one case&#44; the AVF had to be tied off after CABG to allow successful weaning of cardiopulmonary bypass&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0920"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">85</span></a> In another case&#44; selective bicaval cannulation was needed to prevent cardiac distention due to the significant left to right shunting of blood via a functional AVF&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0925"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">86</span></a></p></span></span><span id="sec0055" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0075">AVFs and valvular heart disease</span><p id="par0120" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Valvular heart disease is common among patient on hemodialysis with a prevalence of 39&#8211;43&#37;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0510"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span></a> The majority of valvular abnormalities &#40;aortic stenosis&#44; aortic regurgitation&#44; mitral regurgitation and tricuspid regurgitation&#41; are sensitive to volume overload&#46; Despite that&#44; data on the effects of AVF-associated volume load on patients with valvular heart disease is limited to patients with aortic stenosis &#40;AS&#41;&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0930"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87&#44;88</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0060" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0080">Effects of AVF on aortic stenosis</span><p id="par0125" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Significant aortic stenosis is present in 3&#46;3&#37; of hemodialysis patients &#62;65 years of age compared with 1&#8211;2&#37; in the general population&#46; Also&#44; severe AS is rare in non-ESRD patients who are less than 50 but occurs in 3&#37; of ESRD patients of similar age&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0940"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">89</span></a></p><p id="par0130" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are two potential effects of AVFs on patients with severe AS&#58; &#40;1&#41; the coexistence of AS and an AVF could complicate the assessment of the severity of aortic valve disease&#46; Cardiac output has significant impact on the assessment of transaortic valve gradient in AS&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0945"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">90</span></a> In a patient with ESRD and suspected severe AS&#44; manual compression of the AVF dropped the mean transaortic valve gradient from 45<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg to 30<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mmHg&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0930"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">87</span></a> &#40;2&#41; The increase in CO associated with the creation of AVF can lead to acute or sub acute decompensation in patients with significant AS who had no symptoms or were minimally symptomatic prior to AVF surgery&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0935"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">88</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0065" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0085">Is closing AVFs beneficial to the heart&#63;</span><p id="par0135" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Preserving dialysis access is a priority to both dialysis patients and their physicians&#46; Closing AVFs in patients undergoing hemodialysis has been reserved for those with apparent access failure or apparent access-related complications&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0640"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></a> The management of AVFs in patients who underwent successful KT is a topic of ongoing debate&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0950"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91&#8211;93</span></a> Most transplant physicians currently suggest that AVF closure is not routinely required in KT recipients with stable renal allograft function&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0950"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91&#44;94</span></a> Others believe that AVF closure is associated with significant beneficial effects on cardiac functions and on allograft survival&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17&#44;19&#44;93&#44;95&#44;96</span></a> The benefit of AVF closure should be weighed against the small but the known potential life threatening complications associated with the closure procedure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0980"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">97</span></a> A number of studies examined the effects of spontaneous or planned post-KT AVF closure on echocardiographic indices &#40;LV wall mass index&#44; wall thickness&#44; and LVEDD&#41;&#46; The potential impact of fistula closure on clinical outcomes was also investigated in a smaller number of studies&#46; A summary of these studies is provided in <a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#tbl0005">Table 1</a>&#46;</p><elsevierMultimedia ident="tbl0005"></elsevierMultimedia></span><span id="sec0070" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0090">Effects on echocardiographic parameters</span><p id="par0140" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">Spontaneous closure of AVFs &#40;due to thrombosis&#41;&#44; can result in a significant reduction in CO&#44; LV wall mass index &#40;LVMI&#41;&#44; and LVEDD&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">96</span></a> Similar benefits were observed in patients who underwent planned surgical AVF closure due to graft dysfunction&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a> cardiovascular deragments&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a> or as part of a research protocol&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0700"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span></a> Contrary to these findings&#44; other studies found no significant effects of spontaneous or planned AVF closure on echocardiographic indices&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21&#44;91&#44;94&#44;98</span></a></p></span><span id="sec0075" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0095">Effects on clinical outcomes</span><p id="par0145" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">In a large cohort of patients who underwent KT&#44; the incidence of AVF-related complications requiring an intervention was 12&#46;5&#37; at 4 years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a> In these patients&#44; cardiac decompensation and distal arm hypoperfusion constituted 16&#46;2&#37; of all complications&#46; Transplant allograft survival was positively affected by AVF closure in one study&#44;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">93</span></a> but was not different in another&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a> In all-comers&#44; AVF closure was not associated with a mortality benefit at 10 years&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a> Only one study explored the effects of AVF closure on clinical outcomes in patients with refractory heart failure&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0970"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">95</span></a> In this study 30 patients with AVF and 3 with arteriovenous grafts were referred for access closure due to refractory CHF&#46; There was an immediate significant improvement in CHF symptoms in 70&#37; of patients &#40;responders&#41;&#44; but no benefit was seen in the other 30&#37; &#40;non-responders&#41;&#46; The non-responders had higher prevalence of ischemic heart disease and longer durations since their AVF creation&#46; Those who responded had better survival at 1 year&#44; but had similar mortality rates as the non-responders at 5 years&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0080" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0100">Conclusion</span><p id="par0150" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">There are currently near 400&#44;000 patients on hemodialysis and 180&#44;000 kidney transplant recipients in the United States&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0525"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span></a> The majorities of these patients have cardiovascular disease and have functional AVFs&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs" href="#bib0500"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2&#44;5</span></a> Arteriovenous fistulas are associated with lower mortality and are viewed as the desired access option in most patients with ESRD needing dialysis&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0515"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span></a> Arteriovenous fistulas are well tolerated by most patients&#46; However&#44; the potentially deleterious effects of AVFs&#44; particularly in the setting of preexisting heart disease should not be underestimated&#46; A multidisciplinary evaluation of patients with known heart disease before AVF creation is warranted&#46; Additionally&#44; in patients who develop dyspnea&#44; heart failure&#44; or pulmonary hypertension&#44; AVF revision should be considered as an important therapeutic option&#44; especially in those who underwent successful kidney transplantation&#46;</p></span><span id="sec0085" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><span class="elsevierStyleSectionTitle" id="sect0105">Conflict of interest</span><p id="par0155" class="elsevierStylePara elsevierViewall">The authors declare no conflict of interest&#46;</p></span></span>"
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          "titulo" => "AVFs and congestive heart failure"
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              "titulo" => "Risk of developing de novo heart failure after AVF"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        5 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0020"
          "titulo" => "AVFs and left ventricular hypertrophy"
          "secciones" => array:2 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0025"
              "titulo" => "AVFs and pulmonary hypertension"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0030"
              "titulo" => "The effects of volume overload"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        6 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0035"
          "titulo" => "AVFs and right ventricular dysfunction"
        ]
        7 => array:3 [
          "identificador" => "sec0040"
          "titulo" => "AVFs and coronary artery disease"
          "secciones" => array:2 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0045"
              "titulo" => "Impact of AVF on coronary ischemia"
            ]
            1 => array:2 [
              "identificador" => "sec0050"
              "titulo" => "Impact of AVF on coronary artery bypass grafting &#40;CABG&#41;"
            ]
          ]
        ]
        8 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0055"
          "titulo" => "AVFs and valvular heart disease"
        ]
        9 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0060"
          "titulo" => "Effects of AVF on aortic stenosis"
        ]
        10 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0065"
          "titulo" => "Is closing AVFs beneficial to the heart&#63;"
        ]
        11 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0070"
          "titulo" => "Effects on echocardiographic parameters"
        ]
        12 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0075"
          "titulo" => "Effects on clinical outcomes"
        ]
        13 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0080"
          "titulo" => "Conclusion"
        ]
        14 => array:2 [
          "identificador" => "sec0085"
          "titulo" => "Conflict of interest"
        ]
        15 => array:1 [
          "titulo" => "References"
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "pdfFichero" => "main.pdf"
    "tienePdf" => true
    "fechaRecibido" => "2014-07-28"
    "fechaAceptado" => "2015-03-23"
    "PalabrasClave" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Keywords"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593610"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Hemodialysis vascular access"
            1 => "Cardiovascular"
            2 => "Fistula"
            3 => "Kidney transplantation"
          ]
        ]
      ]
      "es" => array:1 [
        0 => array:4 [
          "clase" => "keyword"
          "titulo" => "Palabras clave"
          "identificador" => "xpalclavsec593611"
          "palabras" => array:4 [
            0 => "Acceso vascular para hemodi&#225;lisis"
            1 => "Cardiovascular"
            2 => "F&#237;stula"
            3 => "Trasplante renal"
          ]
        ]
      ]
    ]
    "tieneResumen" => true
    "resumen" => array:2 [
      "en" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Abstract"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0005" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0005" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of the death in dialysis patients&#46; Arteriovenous fistulas &#40;AVFs&#41; are associated with lower mortality and are viewed as the desired access option in most patients with advanced kidney disease needing dialysis&#46; However&#44; AVFs have significant and potentially deleterious effects on cardiac functions particularly in the setting of preexisting heart disease&#46; This article provides a comprehensive and contemporary review to what is known about the impact of AVFs on&#58; congestive heart failure&#44; left ventricular hypertrophy&#44; pulmonary hypertension&#44; right ventricular dysfunction&#44; coronary artery disease and valvular heart disease&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
      "es" => array:2 [
        "titulo" => "Resumen"
        "resumen" => "<span id="abst0010" class="elsevierStyleSection elsevierViewall"><p id="spar0010" class="elsevierStyleSimplePara elsevierViewall">La enfermedad cardiovascular es la principal causa de muerte en los pacientes dializados&#46; Las f&#237;stulas arteriovenosas &#40;FAV&#41; se asocian a una menor mortalidad y se consideran la opci&#243;n preferible de v&#237;a de acceso en la mayor parte de los pacientes con enfermedad renal avanzada que requieren di&#225;lisis&#46; Sin embargo&#44; las FAV tienen efectos importantes y potencialmente nocivos sobre las funciones card&#237;acas&#44; en especial en presencia de una cardiopat&#237;a preexistente&#46; En este art&#237;culo se presenta una revisi&#243;n completa y actualizada de los conocimientos existentes sobre las repercusiones que tienen las FAV en los trastornos de&#58; insuficiencia cardiaca congestiva&#44; hipertrofia ventricular izquierda&#44; hipertensi&#243;n pulmonar&#44; disfunci&#243;n ventricular derecha&#44; enfermedad coronaria y valvulopat&#237;as card&#237;acas&#46;</p></span>"
      ]
    ]
    "multimedia" => array:1 [
      0 => array:7 [
        "identificador" => "tbl0005"
        "etiqueta" => "Table 1"
        "tipo" => "MULTIMEDIATABLA"
        "mostrarFloat" => true
        "mostrarDisplay" => false
        "tabla" => array:1 [
          "tablatextoimagen" => array:1 [
            0 => array:2 [
              "tabla" => array:1 [
                0 => """
                  <table border="0" frame="\n
                  \t\t\t\t\tvoid\n
                  \t\t\t\t" class=""><thead title="thead"><tr title="table-row"><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="left" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Study&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Design&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Number of patients&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Reason for access closure&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Fistula vintage before KT&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Follow up&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Echocardiographic parameters&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th><th class="td" title="table-head  " align="center" valign="top" scope="col" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black">Clinical outcomes&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</th></tr></thead><tbody title="tbody"><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Vajdic Trampuz et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a>2013&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective single arm &#40;evaluation of complications of functional AVF post-KT&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">592 KT patients&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">42 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">48 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Complications occurred in 74 patients &#40;12&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#58;Painful thrombosis 43&#46;2&#37;Growing aneurysms 27&#37;Venous hypertension 8&#46;1&#37; distal Hypoperfusion 8&#46;1&#37; cardiac failure 8&#46;1&#37;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Solaimani et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0950"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">91</span></a>2012&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">23 with functional AVF vs&#46; 17 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 34Planned closure in 4&#42;&#40;out of these patients 17 were included in the study&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">30 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">14 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF&#58; significant reduction in IVS &#40;1&#46;16<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;11 vs&#46; 1&#46;10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;11<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;002&#41; and PW thickness &#40;1&#46;17<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;11 vs&#46; 1&#46;10<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;11<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41; thickness but no significant change in LVEDD &#40;4&#46;87<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;38 vs&#46; 4&#46;85<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;47<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#62;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;05&#41;Patients with persistent AVF&#58; no difference&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">G&#322;owi&#324;ski et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0990"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">99</span></a>2012&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective case&#8211;controlled&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">9 matched pairs&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 4 planned closure in 5 for cosmetic reasons&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">24 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">11 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference after AVF closure in IVS and PW thickness&#44; LVEDD&#44; LVWMI in both groups&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Kurita et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0745"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">50</span></a>2011&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective single arm&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">30 functional AVF and 3 with functional grafts&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure due to refractory heart failure&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">36 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">60 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference after AVF closure in IVS and PW thickness&#44; LVEDD&#44; LVWMI&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">70&#37; had symptomatic improvement &#40;responders&#41;&#46; Responders had better early survival but 5-years survival was similar in both groups&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Movilli et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0580"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span></a>2010&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">35 with functional AVF and 25 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure due to malfunction&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">56 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">6 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF&#58; significant reduction in IVS and PW thickness &#40;11&#46;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;1 vs&#46; 11&#46;0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>2&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; and 10&#46;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;7 vs&#46; 10&#46;0<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;9<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46; LVEDD and LVWMI also significantly decreased &#40;51<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4 vs&#46; 49<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4 and 135<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>40 vs&#46; 123<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>23<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#41;&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001 for all&#46;Patients with persistent AVF&#58; no difference&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Vajdic et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0960"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">93</span></a>2010&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective&#40;evaluation of effects of persistent AVF on allografts after KT&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">239 with functional AVF and 72 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 70 planned closure in 2&#42;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">70 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">5 years allograft survival was 60&#37; in patients with persistent AVF vs&#46; 75&#37; in those with closed AVF &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;045&#41;&#46; Persistent AVF was an independent risk factor for allograft loss &#40;HR 1&#46;336&#59; 95&#37; CI&#44; 1&#46;018 &#8211;1&#46;755&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;037&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Cridlig et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0975"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">96</span></a>2008&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective case&#8211;controlled&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">38 matched pairs&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in 23Planned closure in 4&#42;Previously closed in 11&#40;9 on PD&#44; 2 with tunneled catheters&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">23 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">65 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Compared with those with closed AVF&#44; patients with persistent AVF had&#58; more PW thickness &#40;12&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;7 vs&#46;11&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>1&#46;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>cm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;007&#41;&#44; larger LVEDD&#40;52&#46;1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>7&#46;1 vs&#46; 48&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#46;0&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;02&#41;&#44; and higher LVMI &#40;135&#46;1<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>30&#46;3 vs&#46; 112&#46;4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>28<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41;&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Sheashaa et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0985"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">98</span></a>2004&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">34 with functional AVF and 17 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Spontaneous closure in all&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">17 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">12 months&#44; echo120 months&#44; clinical&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">No difference in IVS and PW thickness&#44; LVEDD&#44; and LVMI between the two groups&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">No significant difference in death or allograft survival between the two groups&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Unger et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0590"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span></a>2004&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Prospective observational&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">8 with functional AVF and 17 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure for CHF &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>10&#41;&#44; venous hypertension &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>6&#41;&#44; and&#47;or cosmetic reasons &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">n</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">88 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">32 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Patients with closed AVF&#58; significant reduction in LVEDD &#40;29&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;4 vs&#46; 26&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>3&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;017&#41; and LVWMI 139<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>44 to 117<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>40<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;001&#41; at 21 months&#46; No significant difference in IVS and PW thickness&#46;Patients with persistent AVF&#58; no difference&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">VanDuijnhoven et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0955"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">92</span></a>2001&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Prospective interventional&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">22 with functional AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Planned closures in all &#42;&#42; &#40;excluded CHF patients&#41;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">104 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">46 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">After 3 months of AVF closure&#58;Both LVEDD and LVWMI decreased&#58; &#40;51&#46;5<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;8 vs&#46; 49<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>5&#46;4<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>mm&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01&#41; and &#40;135<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>34 vs&#46; 119&#46;8<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>23<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>g&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#60;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;01&#41;&#44; respectively&#46; No significant difference in IVS and PW thickness&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr><tr title="table-row"><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Delima et al&#46;<a class="elsevierStyleCrossRef" href="#bib0600"><span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></a>1999&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Retrospective&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">39 with functional AVF and 22 with closed AVF&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Planned closure for cosmetic reasons within 2 months of KT in all&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">62 months&#44; group I 36 months&#44; group II&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">14 months&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">Compared with those with closed AVF&#44; patients with persistent AVF had higher LVEDD &#40;52&#46;7<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;8 vs&#46; 49&#46;2<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#177;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>4&#46;6&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">p</span><span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>&#61;<span class="elsevierStyleHsp" style=""></span>0&#46;007&#41;&#46; No significant difference in IVS or PW thickness and LVWMI&#46;&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td><td class="td" title="table-entry  " align="left" valign="top">NR&nbsp;\t\t\t\t\t\t\n
                  \t\t\t\t</td></tr></tbody></table>
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Article information

ISSN: 20132514
Original language: English

DOI:10.1016/j.nefroe.2015.07.005

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Year/Month	Html	Pdf	Total

2024 November	22	10	32
2024 October	299	164	463
2024 September	291	58	349
2024 August	295	104	399
2024 July	429	60	489
2024 June	306	108	414
2024 May	267	82	349
2024 April	179	64	243
2024 March	257	87	344
2024 February	263	105	368
2024 January	220	109	329
2023 December	221	74	295
2023 November	253	69	322
2023 October	294	98	392
2023 September	281	85	366
2023 August	269	56	325
2023 July	300	60	360
2023 June	350	85	435
2023 May	306	66	372
2023 April	231	63	294
2023 March	319	65	384
2023 February	251	46	297
2023 January	244	75	319
2022 December	242	82	324
2022 November	236	74	310
2022 October	352	106	458
2022 September	314	64	378
2022 August	252	86	338
2022 July	256	78	334
2022 June	289	93	382
2022 May	265	66	331
2022 April	274	72	346
2022 March	315	71	386
2022 February	336	67	403
2022 January	406	70	476
2021 December	183	72	255
2021 November	236	54	290
2021 October	300	59	359
2021 September	250	57	307
2021 August	198	78	276
2021 July	678	57	735
2021 June	203	58	261
2021 May	208	49	257
2021 April	476	88	564
2021 March	436	88	524
2021 February	258	67	325
2021 January	310	59	369
2020 December	226	34	260
2020 November	126	29	155
2020 October	150	38	188
2020 September	246	36	282
2020 August	201	25	226
2020 July	241	40	281
2020 June	195	52	247
2020 May	263	34	297
2020 April	549	49	598
2020 March	233	52	285
2020 February	279	57	336
2020 January	241	65	306
2019 December	288	68	356
2019 November	314	62	376
2019 October	282	68	350
2019 September	375	70	445
2019 August	314	46	360
2019 July	193	54	247
2019 June	175	56	231
2019 May	96	41	137
2019 April	105	87	192
2019 March	105	49	154
2019 February	47	20	67
2019 January	53	39	92
2018 December	205	38	243
2018 November	470	22	492
2018 October	215	11	226
2018 September	42	13	55
2018 August	27	27	54
2018 July	31	14	45
2018 June	22	24	46
2018 May	34	23	57
2018 April	34	7	41
2018 March	35	8	43
2018 February	27	13	40
2018 January	29	10	39
2017 December	30	14	44
2017 November	37	11	48
2017 October	45	26	71
2017 September	42	15	57
2017 August	29	23	52
2017 July	35	21	56
2017 June	60	17	77
2017 May	44	22	66
2017 April	24	12	36
2017 March	19	32	51
2017 February	35	18	53
2017 January	21	11	32
2016 December	73	7	80
2016 November	126	12	138
2016 October	140	22	162
2016 September	165	2	167
2016 August	190	2	192
2016 July	186	4	190
2016 June	153	0	153
2016 May	186	0	186
2016 April	141	0	141
2016 March	121	0	121
2016 February	160	0	160
2016 January	115	0	115
2015 December	125	0	125
2015 November	138	0	138
2015 October	139	0	139
2015 September	148	0	148
2015 August	88	0	88

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