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hypertension &#40;AHT&#41;&#44; and primary glomerular diseases&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span> These three conditions are the causes of CKD in approximately 50&#37; of all patients currently on chronic renal replacement therapy&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7&#44;8</span> and proteinuria is an early or late marker for the three of them&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;9</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Evidence suggests that certain treatments can prevent or at least delay complications&#44; slow progression&#44; and reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in CKD patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span> In this sense&#44; an evaluation of proteinuria plays an important role in the diagnosis so as to evaluate the prognosis of the disease and monitor therapeutic interventions&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;11</span> Indeed&#44; early screening for microalbuminuria &#40;MAU&#41; has been defined as one of the best methods for modifying the natural course of the diseases that cause CKD&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The concept of MAU was introduced in 1982<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12 </span>as an early biological marker for diabetic nephropathy&#46; It was later extended as a factor for cardiovascular risk&#44; mortality in the general population&#44; endothelial dysfunction&#44; and systemic vascular disorders in AHT&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In the treatment of CKD&#44; our greatest interest is to reduce incidence rates&#44; so it is necessary<span class="elsevierStyleBold"> </span>to emphasise early detection of renal damage in those diseases most commonly responsible for leading to CKD&#58; DM&#44; AHT&#44; and glomerulopathies&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span> In 1968&#44; Wilson and Jungner defined the necessary criteria for a productive CKD prevention and screening programme&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> They focused on those highly prevalent diseases that have an important impact on the patient&#44; are long-term asymptomatic&#44; preventable&#44; easily detected&#44; and&#44; above all&#44; where the cost of detecting and preventing the disease has been shown to be lower than the cost of treating it&#46; In later years&#44; these criteria have been supplemented with cardiovascular disease&#44; family history of CKD&#44; and obesity&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Many of these concepts have been thoroughly examined in developed countries&#46; However&#44; the specific influence of certain prevalent diseases in the population of developing countries is still not well defined&#44; and so these same diseases may have a varying impact according to the composition of specific populations&#44; including variables such as age&#44; race&#44; and environment&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">With this in mind&#44; our study aimed to determine the frequency of MAU in patients with established risk factors&#44; such as DM&#44; AHT&#44; and obesity&#44; who sought treatment at nephrology departments throughout Peru on the 2010 World Kidney Day&#44; establishing a patient model with a more efficient screening protocol&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">MATERIAL AND METHOD</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Ours was a descriptive&#44; cross-sectional study involving voluntary outpatients of both sexes&#44; older than 18 years&#44; with known risk factors for CKD &#40;AHT&#44; DM&#44; and obesity&#41;&#46; They came during the CKD screening campaign on the 2010 World Kidney Day&#44; and had not previously visited a nephrologist&#46; This campaign was organised six months in advance by the Peruvian Society of Nephrology&#44; in coordination with the nephrology departments of the different hospitals throughout the country&#46; Each nephrology department was provided with the necessary materials for the campaign&#46; The programme was nation-wide&#44; and was advertised using all major media&#58; radio&#44; television&#44; and written media&#44; sending a message of the basic concepts of kidney disease and inviting the population with known risk factors to seek care at the campaign sites&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We used a standard information form to collect demographic variables &#40;sex&#44; age&#44; origin&#44; and level of education&#41;&#44; personal health history &#40;DM&#44; AHT&#41;&#44; and details on lifestyle &#40;physical activity&#44; tobacco use&#44; and alcohol use&#41;&#46; Each patient underwent a clinical evaluation&#44; including blood pressure&#44; height&#44; weight&#44; body mass index &#40;BMI&#41;&#44; and waist&#47;hip ratio &#40;WHR&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Based on the result of the evaluation&#44; each patient received dietary and medical advice&#46; Patients with positive results for MAU were referred to the relevant nephrology department for evaluation and monitoring&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">MAU was determined using Micral Test II<span class="elsevierStyleSup">&#174;</span> dipsticks &#40;Boehringer Mannheim&#41;&#44; based on a specific immunocapture method in which a colour reaction is mediated by an enzyme conjugated to antibodies&#46; Following the manufacturer&#8217;s instructions on taking samples and interpreting results&#44; which are solely qualitative&#44; we considered the result to be positive for MAU when the dipstick revealed a value &#8805;20mg&#47;l &#40;1&#43;&#44; 2&#43;&#44; or 3&#43;&#41;&#44; based on the colour scale provided by the manufacturer&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Patients were considered to be overweight if their BMI was &#8805;25 and obese if &#8805;30&#46; WHR between 0&#46;78 and 0&#46;94 was considered normal in males and between 0&#46;71 and 0&#46;85 for women&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We performed a descriptive analysis examining the distribution of frequencies for each variable studied&#44; expressed as mean and standard deviation for continuous variables and proportions for categorical variables&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Considering MAU as a dependent variable&#44; we calculated odds ratios &#40;OR&#41; and 95&#37; confidence intervals &#40;95&#37; CI&#41; for all qualitative categorical variables&#44; and used Student&#8217;s t-tests for continuous variables&#46; We then performed a multivariate analysis to define a model that was significantly correlated with MAU in our study population&#46; We used STATA statistical software&#44; version 9&#46;9&#44; for all analyses&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">RESULTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A total of 2968 patients were evaluated&#46; Some 334 of them &#40;11&#46;25&#37;&#41; had no background of chronic disease and were excluded from the final evaluation&#44; leaving 2634 patients for our study population&#44; with a mean age of 52&#46;76&#177;14&#46;24 years &#40;range&#58; 18-95 years&#41;&#46; The population was primarily made up of women &#40;68&#46;41&#37;&#41;&#46; The health campaign took place in 23 hospitals throughout Peru&#58; 11 in the capital city &#40;Lima&#41; and 12 in other cities &#40;Figure 1&#41;&#46; Lima was the city of origin for 57&#46;48&#37; of the patients&#44; and the other 42&#46;52&#37; were from the rest of the country&#46; The city of origin was higher than 1500 metres above sea level for 397 subjects &#40;15&#46;1&#37;&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">By level of education&#44; 950 subjects &#40;35&#46;46&#37;&#41; had a higher education&#44; 916 &#40;34&#46;78&#37;&#41; had a secondary education&#44; 634 &#40;24&#46;07&#37;&#41; had a primary education&#44; and 150 &#40;5&#46;69&#37;&#41; were illiterate&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Some 1368 &#40;51&#46;93&#37;&#41; patients reported AHT&#44; 758 &#40;28&#46;78&#37;&#41; were obese&#44; and 508 &#40;19&#46;29&#37;&#41; had DM&#46; Tobacco use was reported in 105 subjects &#40;4&#37;&#41;&#44; whereas alcohol consumption at least once per week was reported in 277 &#40;10&#46;5&#37;&#41;&#44; and only 803 &#40;30&#46;48&#37;&#41; had regular physical activity&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The mean weight of the study subjects was 68&#46;11&#177;13&#46;23kg &#40;range&#58; 34-137&#46;5kg&#41;&#44; and the mean BMI was 27&#46;95&#177;4&#46;86kg&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span> &#40;range&#58; 15&#46;76-56&#46;39kg&#47;m<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#41;&#46; Mean WHR was 0&#46;90&#177;0&#46;07cm &#40;range&#58; 0&#46;62-1&#46;47cm&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">MAU was observed in 1408 subjects &#40;53&#46;45&#37;&#41;&#44; and 9&#46;3&#37; of patients had an MAU&#62;100mg&#47;l&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The association of MAU with pathological histories is summarised in Table 1&#46; This condition was observed in 89&#46;96&#37; of diabetics &#40;457&#47;508&#41;&#44; 52&#46;12&#37; of hypertensive patients &#40;713&#47;1368&#41;&#44; 57&#46;65&#37; of obese patients &#40;437&#47;758&#41;&#44; 28&#46;42&#37; of smokers &#40;27&#47;95&#41;&#44; and 18&#46;77&#37; of alcohol consumers &#40;52&#47;277&#41;&#46; In the case of patients with two different pathologies&#44; 69&#46;4&#37; &#40;422&#47;608&#41; had MAU&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Upon performing a multivariate logistic regression&#44; we found that the patient profile with the most efficient screening results was a history of DM and the finding of uncontrolled AHT during the evaluation&#46; Living in the capital &#40;Lima&#41; and female sex were protective factors against MAU&#46; On the contrary&#44; DM was the most important predictive factor for the presence of MAU &#40;OR&#58; 11&#46;62&#59; 95&#37; CI&#58; 8&#46;55-15&#46;78&#41; &#40;Table 2&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">DISCUSSION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Similar to the situation in other countries&#44; CKD in Peru has experienced an exponential increase in recent years in association with several factors&#44; including increased survival&#44; higher prevalence of chronic diseases&#44; and especially a lack of promotion and prevention measures for renal health&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">This study was a collaborative effort made by all nephrologists in Peru&#44; with the goal of procuring national reference data and reinforcing health prevention strategies&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We found that the frequency of MAU in diabetics &#40;89&#46;9&#37;&#41; was higher than values previously reported&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The prevalence of MAU in patients with DM varied according to race&#44; with higher rates in Asians and Latin Americans than in Caucasians&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19&#44;20</span> The magnitude of this difference was also reported in an international study involving 24&#160;000 patients with DM and no known albuminuria&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> The mean duration of DM was almost 8 years&#44; and the rate of MAU was significantly higher in Asians and Latin Americans &#40;43&#37;&#41; than in Caucasians &#40;33&#37;&#41;&#46; Similar results have been found by other studies performed in Latin America&#44; especially in Mexico&#46; Cer&#243;n S&#225;nchez et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span> reported 67&#46;3&#37; of patients with MAU in a population in Tamaulipas &#40;Mexico&#41; using the albumin&#47;creatinine ratio&#59; Olaguer et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span> observed MAU in 85&#46;3&#37; of 24-hour urine samples from patients at the Coahuila public hospital&#59; Gonzales Villalpando et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">23</span> observed MAU in 54&#46;7&#37; of subjects in Mexico City&#44; and Cueto Manzano et al found early nephropathy &#40;MAU with a normal or slightly reduced glomerular filtration rate&#41; in 40&#37; of Mexican patients&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">24</span> These values differ greatly from those observed in European populations&#44; in which MAU is found in approximately 30&#37; of subjects&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25-27</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The value of MAU observed in hypertensive patients is only comparable to the results from Habbal et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span> &#40;67&#46;8&#37;&#41; in a cross-sectional study involving 457 hypertensive subjects in Morocco&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">As regards altitude&#44; some reports have observed MAU in populations that live between 3200 and 4000 metres above sea level and with polycythaemia and&#47;or hyperuricemia&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;30</span> In our study we did not evaluate people in high altitude&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The high proportion of MAU observed in our study may be due to the fact that ours was a health campaign that did not involve a stratification of patients based on the duration of disease&#44; which is extremely important and involves a greater severity&#44; especially in DM&#46; Furthermore&#44; the data were collected in hospital settings and the campaign may have attracted more complex subjects and&#44; lastly&#44; the use of dipsticks for measuring MAU involves some limitations such as false positives&#47;negatives depending on the dilution or alkalinisation of urine samples&#46; Although the majority of clinical practice guidelines advise against using dipsticks in screening programmes to detect proteinuria and MAU&#44; those that do include this methodology recommend confirming the diagnosis using a quantitative method&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">31&#44;32</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">However&#44; in countries where the prevalence of CKD is not well known and screening campaigns such as ours have been implemented&#44; this technique has been used for screening in order to cut costs and widen the coverage and information provided regarding this disease&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29&#44;33</span> Despite its limitations for diagnosing kidney disease&#44; we used this technique since not all participating nephrology departments had the capability to measure proteinuria&#47;creatinine or albumin&#47;creatinine ratios&#46; All patients with positive MAU results were referred to their corresponding nephrology departments in order to definitively rule out the presence of CKD&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In light of our results&#44; it is important to plan future studies that involve the measurement of renal function&#44; which would allow for the detection of kidney disease as well as referring these patients to the relevant health centres&#46; Additionally&#44; we must emphasise programmes for the prevention and control of chronic diseases &#40;DM and AHT&#41; and reinforce renal health programmes in order to provide better care and reduce the morbidity and mortality rates associated with kidney disease&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In conclusion&#44; our study found an incidence of MAU of 53&#46;45&#37;&#44; and the most efficient screening model for kidney disease is a subject with DM that is diagnosed with uncontrolled AHT in the patient examination&#46; Living in Lima and female sex acted as protective factors against this condition&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Conflicts of Interest</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The authors affirm that they have no conflicts of interest related to the content of this article&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Acknowledgements</span><br></br><br></br></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We would like to thank all multi-disciplinary teams from all hospitals that collaborated in the 2010 World Kidney Day campaign in Peru&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="grande&#47;10865&#95;16025&#95;27921&#95;en&#95;f1&#95;10865&#46;jpg" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"><img src="10865_16025_27921_en_f1_10865.jpg" alt="Distribution by patient origin"></img></a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Distribution by patient origin</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="grande&#47;10865&#95;16025&#95;27922&#95;en&#95;t1&#95;108652&#46;jpg" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"><img src="10865_16025_27922_en_t1_108652.jpg" alt="General characteristics"></img></a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 1&#46; General characteristics</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="grande&#47;10865&#95;16025&#95;27923&#95;en&#95;t2&#95;108653&#46;jpg" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs"><img src="10865_16025_27923_en_t2_108653.jpg" alt="Multivariate analysis"></img></a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 2&#46; Multivariate analysis</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Antecedentes&#58; </span>La enfermedad renal cr&#243;nica es un problema de salud p&#250;blica&#46; Un diagn&#243;stico precoz anticipa la posibilidad de da&#241;o vascular y sus complicaciones&#44; y obliga a tomar medidas terap&#233;uticas r&#225;pidas para impedir futuras complicaciones&#46;&#160;<span class="elsevierStyleBold">Objetivo&#58;</span> Determinar la frecuencia de microalbuminuria &#40;MAU&#41; en pacientes ambulatorios sin control nefrol&#243;gico con factores de riesgo conocidos y definir si hay un modelo de paciente en el cual el tamizaje se hace m&#225;s eficiente&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"> M&#233;todos&#58; </span>Se realiz&#243; un estudio transversal en 2968 pacientes&#44; en 23 centros hospitalarios de Per&#250;&#46; Fueron incluidos pacientes ambulatorios &#8805; 18 a&#241;os con diagn&#243;stico previo de obesidad&#44; hipertensi&#243;n arterial &#40;HTA&#41; y&#47;o diabetes mellitus &#40;DM&#41;&#46; En ellos se determin&#243; el &#237;ndice de masa corporal&#44; el &#237;ndice cintura cadera &#40;IC&#47;C&#41;&#44; la presencia de MAU mediante tira reactiva y la presi&#243;n arterial&#46; Se determin&#243; la fuerza de asociaci&#243;n &#40;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">odds ratio</span> &#91;OR&#93;&#41; de estas variables con la presencia de MAU&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleBold"> Resultados&#58;</span> La edad media fue 52&#44;76 &#177; 14&#44;24 a&#241;os&#46; El 57&#44;48&#37; de la muestra provino de Lima y el 68&#44;41&#37; fueron mujeres&#46; Hubo 508 &#40;19&#44;29&#37;&#41; que ten&#237;an diagn&#243;stico de DM&#44; 1368 &#40;51&#44;93&#37;&#41; HTA y 758 &#40;28&#44;78&#37;&#41; obesidad&#46; La prevalencia general de MAU fue del 53&#44;45&#37;&#46; El 8&#44;96&#37; tuvieron MAU &#62; 100 mg&#47;l&#46; Hubo asociaci&#243;n significativa con DM &#40;OR&#58; 11&#44;62&#44; intervalo de confianza &#91;IC&#93;&#58; 8&#44;55-15&#44;78&#41; y con HTA mal controlada &#40;OR&#58; 1&#44;48&#59; IC&#58; 1&#44;24-1&#44;76&#41;&#46; Los captados en Lima &#40;OR&#58; 0&#44;75&#59; IC&#58; 0&#44;64-0&#44;89&#41; y las mujeres &#40;OR&#58; 0&#44;72&#59; IC&#58; 10&#44;60-0&#44;86&#41; mostraron asociaci&#243;n como factores protectores&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Conclusi&#243;n&#58; </span>La prevalencia de MAU en la poblaci&#243;n estudiada fue del 53&#44;45&#37;&#46; El modelo de asociaci&#243;n m&#225;s relevante fue tener DM y estar hipertenso durante la evaluaci&#243;n&#46;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara">Chronic kidney disease &#40;CKD&#41; is a public health issue and is considered a common and harmful&#44; but treatable disease&#46; Early diagnosis can prevent the possibility of severe vascular damage and its complications&#44; facilitating prompt and aggressive therapeutic measures&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Objective&#58; </span>To determine the frequency of microalbuminuria &#40;MAU&#41; in outpatients with known risk factors and to analyse whether a patient model exists in which screening is more efficient&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Methods&#58; </span>Ours was an observational&#44; cross-sectional study involving 2968 patients from 23 nephrology centres in Peru&#46; Inclusion criteria were&#58; male and female outpatients aged &#8805;18 years with previous diagnosis of hypertension &#40;AHT&#41;&#44; diabetes mellitus &#40;DM&#41; and&#47;or obesity&#46; We obtained values for body mass index &#40;BMI&#41;&#44; waist hip ratio &#40;WHR&#41;&#44; blood pressure&#44; and microalbuminuria by dipstick&#46; We then tested for the association of these variables with MAU using odds ratios &#40;OR&#41;&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Results&#58;</span> The mean age of our patients was 52&#46;76&#177;14&#46;24 years&#44; 68&#46;41&#37; were women&#44; and 57&#46;48&#37; of the patients came from the capital&#46; DM was diagnosed in 508 patients &#40;19&#46;29&#37;&#41;&#44; 1368 &#40;51&#46;93&#37;&#41; had hypertension&#44; and 758 &#40;28&#46;78&#37;&#41; were obese&#46; The frequency of MAU was 53&#46;45&#37;&#44; and 8&#46;96&#37; of patients had MAU&#62;100 mg&#47;L&#46;&#160;There was a highly significant correlation with DM &#40;OR&#58; 11&#46;62&#59; 95&#37; CI&#58; 8&#46;55-15&#46;78&#41; and AHT &#40;OR&#58; 1&#46;48&#59; 95&#37; CI&#58; 1&#46;24-1&#46;76&#41;&#44; while being from the capital &#40;OR&#58; 0&#46;75&#59; 95&#37; CI&#58; 0&#46;64-0&#46;89&#41;&#160;and female sex &#40;OR&#58; 0&#46;72&#59; 95&#37; CI&#58; 10&#46;60-0&#46;86&#41; acted as protective factors&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleBold">Conclusions&#58;</span> The frequency of microalbuminuria in the population studied was 53&#46;45&#37;&#46;&#160;There was a highly significant correlation with diabetes and a hypertension found during evaluation&#44; while being from the capital and female sex acted as protective factors&#46;</p>"
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