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distant each from each other and thousands of kilometres from us&#46; Just three years ago we were far less conscious of the impact that the decisions of others could have on our lives&#44; with consequences &#40;the current economic crisis&#41; that are significant for our society and that will permanently affect the political&#44; sociocultural&#44; and moral environment of all societies&#46; We are seeing the other side of the coin of globalisation&#59; a phenomenon of economic interdependence that has been intensely experienced since the 1990s and that has resulted in the neoliberal politics we see today&#46; Globalisation is taking place in the financial sector&#44; but also effects politics&#44; science&#44; culture&#44; education and healthcare<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In terms of the training of healthcare professionals of any kind we should ask ourselves&#58; For what &#40;world&#41; and for whom &#40;people&#41; 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The commitment of training institutions must be to enable the training of professionals by and for the community&#44; teaching them about community values of solidarity and empathy&#44; and to be able to put themselves in the shoes of others&#46; This commitment must not be on paper alone&#44; but should manifest itself through training programmes and the actions of teachers&#46; This commitment should focus on training that strengthens&#44; among other aspects&#44; the bonds between different cultures&#44; life-long learning&#44; autonomy and personal and professional responsibility&#44; a universal vision&#44; and&#44; lastly&#44; caring&#44; creative and critical thinking<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>&#46; Training based around competencies and their evaluation allows us to tackle these challenges and commitments&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">THE EUROPEAN AREA AND MEDICAL TRAINING IN</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">A CHANGING SOCIETY</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Medical training in Spain is facing new challenges resulting from an important change in the educational scene in Europe&#58; the European Higher Education Area &#40;Bologna Declaration of 1999<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span>&#41;&#46; A process of convergence has begun that has as its aim to facilitate the mobility of graduates and adapt the content of university studies to social demands&#46; It is an attempt to create a Europe of knowledge &#40;a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">knowledge society</span>&#44; an expression coined by Peter Drucker in 1969<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span>&#44; not linked to the quantity of knowledge but rather to its productivity&#44; that is&#44; its economic impact&#41;&#46; The Bologna Declaration states that &#171;A Europe of Knowledge is now widely recognised as an irreplaceable factor for social and human growth and as an indispensable component to consolidate and enrich the European citizenship&#44; capable of giving its citizens the necessary competencies to face the challenges of the new millennium&#44; together with an awareness of shared values and belonging to a common social and cultural space&#187;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3 </span>&#160;This does not just involve the mobility students&#44; but also of professionals with the consequent recognition of qualifications&#44; which implies a profound change in medical training models both at the university level as well as in specialty training&#46; In addition&#44; continuously changing social needs require dynamic health systems that must offer safe&#44; effective&#44; efficient&#44; and high quality responses to the needs and expectations of citizens<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span>&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup"> </span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The competency profile for health professionals should take into account the need for this responsiveness&#46; Specifically&#44; the profile must continuously be adapted and developed with new competencies&#44; which in turn lead to modifications in learning and evaluation systems&#46; This is important to guarantee&#44; in the case of physicians&#44; a good doctor-patient relationship in which there is a direct influence of &#160;demographic&#44; 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is the consequence of completing a programme designed to meet current healthcare demands&#63;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The Spanish system for medical graduate training&#44; known as the MIR&#44; was born in the 1960s as a result of the &#8220;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Seminario de Hospitales</span>&#8221; &#40;a meeting bringing together representatives of major hospitals from across Spain&#58; Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau&#44; Cl&#237;nica Puerta de Hierro&#44; Hospital Marqu&#233;s de Valdecilla&#44; Fundaci&#243;n Jim&#233;nez D&#237;az&#44; Hospital de Basurto&#44; and Hospital General de Asturias &#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span>&#46; It is based on learning on-the-job and has been one of the most important drivers of the modernisation of medical practice in Spain&#46; The system&#44; as regulated in 1984&#44; has a strong state structure controlled from the Spanish Ministry of Health and Social Policy<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span>&#46; The following characteristics of the system should be highlighted&#58; the accreditation of healthcare centres and teaching units &#40;clinical departments&#41;&#44; whose guarantee of quality training is monitored through regular audits&#59; a universal entrance exam&#59; and the definition and classification of specialties and associated programmes&#44; as regulated by the corresponding National Specialty Commissions and a National Council&#46; However&#44; there are considerable weaknesses in the way in which the system is put into practice within healthcare institutions&#46; The Order on Teaching Commissions of 1995<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span>&#44; which regulates their powers and operation&#44; as well as those of the directors of studies and tutors &#40;educational supervisors&#41;&#44; has not been thoroughly implemented<span class="elsevierStyleBold"> </span>and the evaluation system it proposed&#44; the one currently operating&#44; is more a system of certification of completion of a series of rotations or placements in certain care units&#44; than a true training and assessment of competencies&#46; A study by the National Commission on Nephrology revealed some of these weaknesses in the training of specialists&#44; from irregular allocation of human and material resources within teaching units&#44; to failures to fulfil teaching objectives and the role of mentoring &#40;tutor&#41;&#44; run on a voluntary basis&#44; being little recognised<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span>&#46; With the new law&#44; Real Decreto 183&#47;2008<span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span>&#44; the entire National Health System has had a great opportunity to develop and improve the system for specialised medical training&#44; providing the framework for competency training and assessment&#44; addressing&#44; among other points&#44; the challenges of multi-professional units&#44; and a controversial but fundamental issue&#44; the core curriculum&#46; You must first be a doctor and only then a specialist&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">However&#44; as noted by J&#46; Cobo-Reinoso&#44; the mere passing of legislation does not guarantee its successful implementation<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>&#59; this author highlights the elements that should comprise a residency programme for it to be both effective&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>the definition of a training programme consistent with training objectives&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>establishment of monitoring protocols<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#59; 3&#41; </span>adequate communication with tutors&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>a comprehensive assessment system&#44; essentially educational&#44; and more demanding&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>quality control by the Teaching Commission&#46; This is not possible without funding and a definitive consolidation of healthcare organisations&#44; educational structures and training agents &#40;directors of studies&#44; tutors&#44; trainers and other teaching staff&#41;&#44; and&#44; in Spain&#44; this is the responsibility of the regional governments&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">M&#46;O&#46; Bunk defines competence as behaviour resulting from a set of attitudes&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; knowledge and values that people use to deal with specific situations related to their life and profession<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span>&#46; It is&#44; in short&#44; the effective ability to successfully carry out a clearly specified work activity&#46; Professional competence is not a measure of the probability of success in the execution of a profession&#59; it is a real and demonstrated ability that can be evaluated based on results&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The start of the competency movement can be traced back to a paper published in 1973 by David McClelland&#44; who asserted that not only aspects such as knowledge and skills&#44; but also feelings&#44; beliefs&#44; attitudes and behaviours can predict high work performance<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span>&#46; We are referring to empathy&#44; intuition&#44; integrity&#44; perception of reality&#44; the spirit of community&#44; self-confidence&#44; flexibility&#44; and the domain of the individual&#46; These concepts are fully applicable to the world of healthcare and indeed are today recognised as being fundamental aspects of the competencies of a medical practitioner&#46; A Gual <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">et al</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9 </span>agree with this&#44; stating that for the future we require&#58; physicians who adopt a critical approach&#44; who are communicative and empathetic&#44; individually and socially responsible&#44; make decisions which are good for the patient and the health care system&#44; leaders of the health team&#44; competent&#44; effective and safe&#44; honest and reliable&#44; committed to patients and the organisation&#59; physicians who treat patients&#44; not diseases&#46; In summary&#44; the competencies of a professional combine knowledge &#40;Know&#41;&#44; skills and abilities &#40;know-how&#41;&#44; attitudes and behaviours &#40;how to act&#41;&#44; and values and beliefs &#40;how to be&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Faced with the aforementioned changes and challenges of the 21<span class="elsevierStyleSup">st</span> century&#44; academic and health organisations in various countries began to define basic competencies for physicians in the 1990s and early 2000s including&#58; Tomorrow&#8217;s Doctor<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span>and Scottish Doctor<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22 </span>&#40;UK&#41;&#44; CanMEDS Roles<span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;24</span> &#40;Canada&#41;&#44; the Outcome Project of the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span> &#40;USA&#41; and the Institute for International Medical Education &#40;IIME&#41; in New York<span class="elsevierStyleSup">27 </span>&#40;Table 1&#41;&#46; The competency domains defined in these models are perfectly applicable to any specialty&#46; Specifically&#44; CanMEDS and the Outcome Project define what all residents must demonstrate upon completing their training&#46; Along these lines&#44; in 2008 the Medical Teaching Unit at Cruces Hospital &#40;in its Competency-based Postgraduate Medical Education &#40;CBPME&#41; project&#44; which started in 2004&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span> defined its model of &#171;Being a Physician&#47;Medical Professional&#187; &#40;Teaching Vision<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span>&#41; for all specialties of the centre&#44; based on the model of the IIME&#44; and incorporating concepts from the Outcome Project&#44; CanMEDS and the American Board of Medical Specialties<span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span>&#46; Table 2 summarises the model &#171;Being a Physician&#47;Medical Professional at Cruces Hospital&#187;&#44; which is to be the foundation of our competency evaluation system&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">These approaches do not mean that doctors&#44; to date&#44; have not been trained in such competencies&#59; the difference is that in the CBPME<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>project they are made explicit&#44; and those competencies necessary to address changing social and healthcare needs are emphasised<span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span>&#46; Working with such a model facilitates the development and adaptation of the learning process &#40;learning objectives derived from the competencies&#44; activities&#44; specific tasks&#44; training plans&#44; schedules&#44; methodologies and teaching resources&#41; and the implementation of a final competency assessment &#40;outcome-based assessment&#41;&#46; To bring about the changes required&#44; it is very important that all professionals adopt the same approach and language&#44; a task that will take time&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WORKPLACE AND THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN PROFESSIONALISATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Training in the workplace professionalises the resident by developing their understanding of the knowledge&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; attitudes and values that are present&#44; these days&#44; in the medical profession&#46; However&#44; it can also de-professionalise&#44; as it is difficult to implement educational practices in each and every care setting in which residents train&#46; The workload and other factors associated with healthcare organisations and their management do not facilitate interaction between tutors and residents&#46; Though the residents should not forget that they are primarily responsible for their own training and must be proactive&#44; this climate occasionally leads tutors and staff to forget their teaching role and that the residents are professionals in training&#46; Institutions must guarantee&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>the exercise of leadership from senior and middle management &#40;directors of studies&#44; heads of department&#44; tutors&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>the planning and development of a teaching strategy&#44; with the involvement of all relevant parties &#40;tutors and staff&#41;&#44; facilitating decision-making and accountability&#44; including on the part of residents&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>the resources &#40;structural&#44; material&#44; financial and organisational&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>the development of programmes integrated into the care system in accordance with a defined profile of medical specialist&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>the qualitative and quantitative measurement of results&#46; It is within this scheme that the tutor is essential as a manager of a programme of specialisation within the teaching strategy of the centre&#46; Duties and training tasks should be specified in the training programme contracts of the centres and in the portfolio of services of teaching units&#46; This is a reflection of the duty they have to society as accredited teaching institutions<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Therefore&#44; the objective is to provide a professional with&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>broad and essential training&#44; based on ethical values&#44; behaviours and attitudes and that encompasses &#160;humanistic&#44; scientific and technical aspects&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>an understanding of the scientific method and ability to put it into practice&#44; and to manage complexity and uncertainty&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>a command of scientific language and skills enabling the proper use of computer technology&#44; to facilitate independent learning&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>sufficient experience in the field of interpersonal relations to encourage initiative and teamwork&#44; and the development of skills for personal relations and for effective democratic participation in society<span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span>&#46; To achieve this goal&#44; healthcare centres and teaching units &#40;clinical departments&#41; should be aware that there must be consistency in the training process&#44; taking into account the three stages of the teaching&#47;learning cycle&#58; before&#44; during and after&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Before </span>provides for the social environment of the specialty&#44; the skills to be developed by level&#44; the role of the tutor&#44; the resident&#44; the other trainers and the institution&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">During </span>&#40;interaction&#41; includes training contexts&#44; how learning will be enhanced in each of the contexts&#59; specific&#44; joint and individual tasks&#59; methodological strategies&#59; and ongoing or formative evaluation&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">After&#44; </span>involves evaluation of the learning of the resident&#44; tutor performance&#44; the development of the training process&#44; the programme&#44; the trainers and other agents of the support structure<span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span>&#46; The tutor&#44; as the pivotal figure in this complex process&#44; with a high level of social responsibility&#44; must acquire and develop certain teaching competencies<span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">EVALUATION WITHIN THE TRAINING PROCESS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Concepts and general principles</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rigorous and transferable evaluation is the great unmet challenge in the specialised training system&#44; and it will never be possible if all training agents &#40;not just the tutors&#41; are not sure what to evaluate&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; if there is not a clearly defined programme with competencies to be achieved<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34 </span>&#40;a professional profile&#44; of the nephrologist in our case&#41; and with instruments accepted throughout the institution&#46; The evaluation &#40;the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">after</span>&#41; is a moral obligation to society&#44; the institution&#44; and the resident &#40;it is their right&#44; for the purpose of guiding and supporting them in their learning&#44; and in the acquisition and improvement of their competencies&#41;&#46; Evaluation forms part of a complex training process and should be well defined a priori&#46; Indeed&#44; it is also a process in itself that generates data through assessment applying reference criteria&#44; and this information is used to make judgments and decisions&#46; These decisions can take many forms&#44; but can be categorised under two broad types&#58; a qualifying decision&#44; a sanction&#44; pass&#47;fail&#44; with no possibility of rectification&#44; except by undergoing a new evaluation process &#40;this type is called a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">summative </span>assessment&#41; and another type which can use the same instruments but is based on results&#46; This latter type of evaluation allows the candidate to understand their strengths and weaknesses and create plans for improvement &#40;it is known as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">formative </span>assessment&#41;&#46; Both demand an equal degree of rigor in their procedure and documentation&#46; In the current training system&#44; we must move away from the ingrained cultural concept of &#171;pass&#47;fail&#187;&#44; and thoroughly develop formative assessment&#46; It should be realised that an evaluation process tends to fail if the following questions have not been clearly answered beforehand<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span>&#58; Which competencies are to be evaluated&#63;&#46; How&#63; &#40;with what instruments&#63;&#41;&#46; Why evaluate&#63; &#40;what is the objective&#63;&#41;&#46; When&#63;&#46; By whom&#63;&#46; With what resources&#63;&#44; and is there collaboration across the entire team&#63;&#46; Therefore&#44; &#160;every evaluation should conform to the following principles<span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span>&#58;<span class="elsevierStyleSup"> </span>it should<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>be&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>appropriate to the purpose &#40;why&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>based on the program content &#40;what&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>use methods selected in terms of validity&#44; reliability and feasibility &#40;based on the best available evidence&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>have standardised&#44; transparent and public documentation and methods&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>provide important and positive feedback &#40;educational evaluation&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">6&#41; </span>be overseen by evaluators with demonstrated ability and willingness to collaborate &#40;who&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">7&#41; </span>allow for lay people to assess or examine areas in which they are competent &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; communication&#44; professionalism&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">8&#41; </span>receive sufficient resources&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">9&#41; </span>have a comprehensive system of quality assurance&#46; The evaluation should not be limited to the resident but rather must embrace the programme&#44; process&#44; structure and training agents&#44; as the key to improvement&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">What to evaluate and how to assess the competencies of a professional</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Evaluation of residents has&#44; as its objective&#44; to improve and facilitate the development of knowledge&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; attitudes and values&#46; To achieve this objective will require ongoing assessment of the resident in their acquisition of knowledge&#44; skills and attitudes&#44; and monitoring of the successes or failures of the design and operation of the training programmes&#46; The assessment of professional competence involves various dimensions that are reflected in actions<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span>&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>what the doctor is able to do&#58; technical intelligences &#40;clinical competencies and skills&#41;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>how the doctor approaches their practice&#58; intellectual &#40;basic knowledge&#41;&#44; emotional &#40;attitude&#41;&#44; the creative and analytical &#40;reasoning&#41; intelligences&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>the doctor as a professional&#58; personal intelligences &#40;values&#44; ethics&#44; professionalism&#41;&#46; There are many validated tools and methods to assess each of these areas&#44; which when combined&#44; allow us to judge the competence of a professional&#46; A description of these and their application is beyond the scope of this article&#44; and there are excellent reviews on the subject<span class="elsevierStyleSup">36&#44;37</span>&#46; &#160;A particularly useful document is the Toolbox &#40;Outcome Project&#44; ACGME<span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span>&#41;&#44; which describes each instrument well&#44; its underlying concept&#44; psychometric qualities&#44; utility&#44; validity and reliability&#46; Based on that document and grouping competencies into seven domains&#44; as described in Table 2&#44; the potential assessment tools for each domain would be&#58;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">1&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Professional values&#44; attitudes&#44; behaviour and ethics&#58; </span>Multiple source feedback &#40;MSF&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span>&#44; commonly used in the private sector&#44; patient point of view&#44; and objective structured clinical examination &#40;OSCE&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">2&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Clinical skills &#40;clinical healthcare expert&#41;&#58; </span>standardised patients&#44; simulations&#44; OSCE&#44; clinical evaluation by direct observation of clinical practice in the workplace &#40;Mini-CEX - Mini-Clinical Evaluation Exercise&#44; DOPs - Directly Observed Procedural Skills<span class="elsevierStyleSup">41&#44;42</span>&#41;&#44; questionnaires&#44; case studies&#44; clinical records&#44; audits&#44; peer reviews&#44; quality indicators&#44; reports&#44; and portfolios<span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span>&#46; In relation to this&#44; Cruces Hospital is developing its own model of reflective logbook&#47;report to form the basis of future portfolios<span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span>&#46; Note&#44; however&#44; in terms of the clinical evaluation tests by direct observation&#44; they have been developed in the Anglo-Saxon world to deal with a concern that Norcini highlights in his article<span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span>&#44; that the trainees are seldom observed&#44; so the circumstances in our environment may be different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">3&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Scientific foundations of medicine &#40;medical knowledge&#41;&#58; </span>testing all types of knowledge&#44; multiple-choice questions &#40;MCQs&#41;&#44; extended-matching items &#40;EMIs&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span>&#44; structured cases&#44; simulations and models&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">4&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Communication&#58; </span>patient opinions&#44; MSF&#44; standardised patients&#44; and OSCE&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">5&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Public health systems &#40;health promoter and manager of resources&#41;&#58; </span>MSF&#44; questionnaires&#44; and patient opinions&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">6&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Information management&#58; </span>computer simulations&#44; and cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">7&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Critical analysis and research&#44; and self-directed learning&#58; </span>portfolios&#44; reflective reports&#44; and standardised cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">To evaluate the competencies of a professional many dimensions must be considered&#44; it being necessary to extrapolate from partial data to arrive at a complete picture&#46; Nevertheless&#44; we should start with very simple&#44; inexpensive instruments&#44; accepted and understood by all clinical staff and the resident&#44; and that provide added value to our Postgraduate Medical Education system&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">CONCLUSION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Specialised training based on competencies is the answer to a globalised world in permanent change&#46; To take this forward&#44; medical centres and services should develop their own projects&#44; as allowed for within the existing regulatory framework&#46; Health institutions should be aware of their duty to society given their accreditation as teaching bodies&#46; However&#44; if they are to exert effective leadership in the development of training programmes it is essential that structural&#44; organisational and human resources are made available&#46; In Spain&#44; this is already provided for in current legislation&#44; and the regional governments are responsible for implementing and developing this infrastructure without further delay&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Acknowledgements</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Acknowledgements to Pilar Mart&#237;nez Clar&#233;s&#44; Professor in the Department of Diagnostic and Research Methods applied to Education&#44; Faculty of Education &#40;University of Murcia&#41; for her personal contribution to the content of this text&#44; to the Tutors of the Competency Assessment Group &#40;Andima Basterretxea&#44; Elena Bereziartua&#44; Milagros Iriberri and Agust&#237;n Mart&#237;nez-Berriochoa&#41; and to M&#170; Jes&#250;s Gonz&#225;lez-Garc&#237;a&#44; secretary of the Medical Teaching Unit at Cruces Hospital&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;w477710581710559&#95;18107&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;1&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;w477710581710559&#95;18107&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;1&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 1&#46; Models of competency domains</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;w477710581610559&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;2&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;w477710581610559&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;2&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 2&#46; Physicians&#47;Professionals at Cruces Hospital &#40;2008&#41;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara">In a world undergoing constant change&#44; in the era of globalisation&#44; the training of medical professionals should be under constant review so that it can be tailored to meet the needs of this society in transition&#46; This is all the more true at times of economic uncertainty&#44; such as the current conditions&#44; which have a direct impact on health services&#46; Professionals need new Competencies for new times&#46; Over the last decade initiatives have emerged in various Anglo-Saxon countries which have defined a framework of basic Competencies that all medical specialists should demonstrate in their professional practice&#46; In addition to this&#44; we must respond to the creation of the European Higher Education Area which has implications for specialised training&#46; In Spain&#44; training for medical specialists was in need of an overhaul and the recently passed law &#40;Real Decreto 183&#47;2008&#41; will allow us to move forward and implement&#44; in medical education&#44; initiatives and innovations required in our medical centres&#44; to respond to the new society and bring us in line with international professional education and practice&#46; The way forward is a Competency-based model for medical education with assessment of these Competencies using simple instruments&#44; validated and accepted by all the stakeholders&#46; The institutions involved &#40;hospitals&#44; medical centres and other healthcare services&#41; should trial different approaches within the general framework established by the current legislation and be conscious of the duty they have to society as accredited training organisations&#46; Accordingly&#44; they should consolidate their teaching and learning structures and the various different educational roles &#40;directors of studies&#44; tutors&#44; and other teaching positions&#41;&#44; showing the leadership necessary to allow proper implementation of training programmes&#46; For this&#44; the Spanish regional governments must develop their own legislation regulating Medical Specialty Training&#46; So&#44; medical professionals should receive training&#44; based on ethical values&#44; behaviours and attitudes that considers humanistic&#44; scientific and technical factors&#44; developing an understanding of the scientific method and ability to put it into practice&#59; skills to manage complexity and uncertainty&#59; a command of scientific&#44; technical and IT terminology&#44; to facilitate independent learning&#59; and a capacity for initiative and teamwork&#44; as well as skills for personal activities and for making an effective&#44; democratic contribution both within health organisations and in the wider society&#46;</p>"
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Reinventing specialty training of physicians? Principles and challenges
¿Reinventar la formación de médicos especialistas? Principios y retos
Miembros de la Junta Directiva de la Sociedad de Educación Médica de Euskadi. www.ehu.es/SEMDE, Jesús Morán-Barriosb, Pilar Ruiz de Gauna Bahilloc
b Unidad de Docencia Médica, Hospital de Cruces. Osakidetza-Servicio Vasco de Salud, Baracaldo, Vizcaya,
c Departamento de Teoría e Historia de la Educación, Universidad del País Vasco-Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, San Sebastián-Donostia, Guipuzkoa,
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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">TRAINING OF PHYSICIANS IN AND FOR A HUMANISED AND FAIRER GLOBALISED WORLD</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Can we and should we continue training our residents with the same professional profile of as little as three years ago&#63; What new skills must we introduce and work with in training to make future professionals more responsible and capable of managing universal and growing healthcare demands&#44; with limited resources&#59; professionals who have to continue acquiring knowledge &#40;both scientific and technical&#41; in a globalised world&#44; full of uncertainty that should be moving towards greater equality&#63;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">We live in a delicate&#44; historic time due to the major changes that society has experienced in recent years&#46; Our lives revolve around problems occurring elsewhere on the planet&#44; distant each from each other and thousands of kilometres from us&#46; Just three years ago we were far less conscious of the impact that the decisions of others could have on our lives&#44; with consequences &#40;the current economic crisis&#41; that are significant for our society and that will permanently affect the political&#44; sociocultural&#44; and moral environment of all societies&#46; We are seeing the other side of the coin of globalisation&#59; a phenomenon of economic interdependence that has been intensely experienced since the 1990s and that has resulted in the neoliberal politics we see today&#46; Globalisation is taking place in the financial sector&#44; but also effects politics&#44; science&#44; culture&#44; education and healthcare<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In terms of the training of healthcare professionals of any kind we should ask ourselves&#58; For what &#40;world&#41; and for whom &#40;people&#41; are we doing this training&#63; The direction that training institutions &#40;universities&#44; educational centres&#44; and health centres&#47;hospitals&#41; should take is based on the need to humanise society<span class="elsevierStyleSup">2</span>&#46; In this respect&#44; a goal of the process of training professionals must be to encourage a consciousness of universal citizenship&#44; which will facilitate the process of change towards a new understanding of citizenship&#46; Some time ago&#44; organisations such as the World Health Organisation &#40;WHO&#41; recommended that&#44; within the teaching environment and the practice of medicine&#44; measures must be taken to provide education aiming to achieve equitable&#44; efficient and comprehensive care for patients&#44; families and communities&#44; according to the needs and values of their society&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Medical training must undergo certain changes if it is to contribute to the amelioration of some of the deficits resulting from globalisation&#46; The commitment of training institutions must be to enable the training of professionals by and for the community&#44; teaching them about community values of solidarity and empathy&#44; and to be able to put themselves in the shoes of others&#46; This commitment must not be on paper alone&#44; but should manifest itself through training programmes and the actions of teachers&#46; This commitment should focus on training that strengthens&#44; among other aspects&#44; the bonds between different cultures&#44; life-long learning&#44; autonomy and personal and professional responsibility&#44; a universal vision&#44; and&#44; lastly&#44; caring&#44; creative and critical thinking<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1</span>&#46; Training based around competencies and their evaluation allows us to tackle these challenges and commitments&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">THE EUROPEAN AREA AND MEDICAL TRAINING IN</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">A CHANGING SOCIETY</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Medical training in Spain is facing new challenges resulting from an important change in the educational scene in Europe&#58; the European Higher Education Area &#40;Bologna Declaration of 1999<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span>&#41;&#46; A process of convergence has begun that has as its aim to facilitate the mobility of graduates and adapt the content of university studies to social demands&#46; It is an attempt to create a Europe of knowledge &#40;a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">knowledge society</span>&#44; an expression coined by Peter Drucker in 1969<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4</span>&#44; not linked to the quantity of knowledge but rather to its productivity&#44; that is&#44; its economic impact&#41;&#46; The Bologna Declaration states that &#171;A Europe of Knowledge is now widely recognised as an irreplaceable factor for social and human growth and as an indispensable component to consolidate and enrich the European citizenship&#44; capable of giving its citizens the necessary competencies to face the challenges of the new millennium&#44; together with an awareness of shared values and belonging to a common social and cultural space&#187;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3 </span>&#160;This does not just involve the mobility students&#44; but also of professionals with the consequent recognition of qualifications&#44; which implies a profound change in medical training models both at the university level as well as in specialty training&#46; In addition&#44; continuously changing social needs require dynamic health systems that must offer safe&#44; effective&#44; efficient&#44; and high quality responses to the needs and expectations of citizens<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span>&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup"> </span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The competency profile for health professionals should take into account the need for this responsiveness&#46; Specifically&#44; the profile must continuously be adapted and developed with new competencies&#44; which in turn lead to modifications in learning and evaluation systems&#46; This is important to guarantee&#44; in the case of physicians&#44; a good doctor-patient relationship in which there is a direct influence of &#160;demographic&#44; epidemiological&#44; financial&#44; legal&#44; and scientific-technical changes&#44; cultural aspects&#44; ethics and values&#44; and new models of organisation and healthcare management &#40;clinical management&#41;&#44; as well as of the media and the culture of consumption<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span>&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup"> </span>Regarding these changes&#44; A&#46; Jovell and M&#46; Navarro<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> highlight three social phenomena&#58; changes in the labour structure of health professions&#44; the appearance of a new patient&#47;citizen model&#44; and the transformation and increase in the complexity of knowledge management&#46; To that&#44; we must add the collectivisation of the provision of health services as a strategy to guarantee equitable access&#46; The challenge for today&#8217;s physicians is to know how to respond effectively and efficiently to the needs of the 21<span class="elsevierStyleSup">st</span> century and to the confidence placed in them by patients<span class="elsevierStyleSup">5</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Therefore&#44; &#8220;the simple idea that a competent professional is one who possesses the knowledge and abilities that can lead to success in a specific profession is out of date&#46; This idea has been replaced by the understanding that professional competency is a complex phenomenon which expresses the potential of individuals to direct their actions in the exercise of their profession with initiative&#44; flexibility and autonomy&#44; in diverse scenarios&#44; based on the integration of knowledge&#44; skills&#44; motives and values&#44; and is demonstrated by efficient&#44; ethical&#44; and socially committed professional work&#46; It is necessary to eliminate fear of the unknown and join in the adventure of change from within&#59; innovate and comprehend the new reality&#59; and face up to the future and understand our role in this reality&#187; &#40;Pilar Mart&#237;nez Clar&#233;s&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#46; </span>Today&#8217;s training of tomorrow&#8217;s specialists means providing the competencies necessary to confront the uncertainties of future clinical practice&#44; and appropriately manage future changes in society and within the medical profession itself &#40;the areas of specialisation and collaboration between them&#44; for example&#41;&#44; as well as identifying and understanding the role of the physician among the various stakeholders that influence the profession of medicine &#40;the state&#47;governments&#44; health organisations&#47;corporations&#44; the health technology and pharmaceutical industry&#44; citizens and other health professionals<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8&#44;9</span>&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">It is within this context of ever greater and more complex transformations that competency-based training &#40;CBT&#41; emerges to enable the better adaptation and development of individuals<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span>&#44; in this case&#44; physicians&#46; CBT focuses on learning and not on teaching&#44; and on reaching specific objectives&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; on the results of learning&#44; integrating knowledge and knowing how to do&#44; be and act<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">THE RESIDENCY SYSTEM &#40;SPECIALISED HEALTH TRAINING&#41;&#44; NEW CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Training medical specialists involves the gradual integration of recent graduates in medicine into the care activities of a health centre or hospital with growing responsibility and decreasing supervision over time&#46; Is it possible to carry out this professional training without having the tools and resources necessary to guarantee that this integration is appropriately planned and supervised&#44; and that the final result &#40;a competent medical specialist&#41; is the consequence of completing a programme designed to meet current healthcare demands&#63;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The Spanish system for medical graduate training&#44; known as the MIR&#44; was born in the 1960s as a result of the &#8220;<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Seminario de Hospitales</span>&#8221; &#40;a meeting bringing together representatives of major hospitals from across Spain&#58; Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau&#44; Cl&#237;nica Puerta de Hierro&#44; Hospital Marqu&#233;s de Valdecilla&#44; Fundaci&#243;n Jim&#233;nez D&#237;az&#44; Hospital de Basurto&#44; and Hospital General de Asturias &#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13</span>&#46; It is based on learning on-the-job and has been one of the most important drivers of the modernisation of medical practice in Spain&#46; The system&#44; as regulated in 1984&#44; has a strong state structure controlled from the Spanish Ministry of Health and Social Policy<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span>&#46; The following characteristics of the system should be highlighted&#58; the accreditation of healthcare centres and teaching units &#40;clinical departments&#41;&#44; whose guarantee of quality training is monitored through regular audits&#59; a universal entrance exam&#59; and the definition and classification of specialties and associated programmes&#44; as regulated by the corresponding National Specialty Commissions and a National Council&#46; However&#44; there are considerable weaknesses in the way in which the system is put into practice within healthcare institutions&#46; The Order on Teaching Commissions of 1995<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span>&#44; which regulates their powers and operation&#44; as well as those of the directors of studies and tutors &#40;educational supervisors&#41;&#44; has not been thoroughly implemented<span class="elsevierStyleBold"> </span>and the evaluation system it proposed&#44; the one currently operating&#44; is more a system of certification of completion of a series of rotations or placements in certain care units&#44; than a true training and assessment of competencies&#46; A study by the National Commission on Nephrology revealed some of these weaknesses in the training of specialists&#44; from irregular allocation of human and material resources within teaching units&#44; to failures to fulfil teaching objectives and the role of mentoring &#40;tutor&#41;&#44; run on a voluntary basis&#44; being little recognised<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span>&#46; With the new law&#44; Real Decreto 183&#47;2008<span class="elsevierStyleSup">17</span>&#44; the entire National Health System has had a great opportunity to develop and improve the system for specialised medical training&#44; providing the framework for competency training and assessment&#44; addressing&#44; among other points&#44; the challenges of multi-professional units&#44; and a controversial but fundamental issue&#44; the core curriculum&#46; You must first be a doctor and only then a specialist&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">However&#44; as noted by J&#46; Cobo-Reinoso&#44; the mere passing of legislation does not guarantee its successful implementation<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span>&#59; this author highlights the elements that should comprise a residency programme for it to be both effective&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>the definition of a training programme consistent with training objectives&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>establishment of monitoring protocols<span class="elsevierStyleItalic">&#59; 3&#41; </span>adequate communication with tutors&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>a comprehensive assessment system&#44; essentially educational&#44; and more demanding&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>quality control by the Teaching Commission&#46; This is not possible without funding and a definitive consolidation of healthcare organisations&#44; educational structures and training agents &#40;directors of studies&#44; tutors&#44; trainers and other teaching staff&#41;&#44; and&#44; in Spain&#44; this is the responsibility of the regional governments&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">PROFESSIONAL COMPETENCIES</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">M&#46;O&#46; Bunk defines competence as behaviour resulting from a set of attitudes&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; knowledge and values that people use to deal with specific situations related to their life and profession<span class="elsevierStyleSup">19</span>&#46; It is&#44; in short&#44; the effective ability to successfully carry out a clearly specified work activity&#46; Professional competence is not a measure of the probability of success in the execution of a profession&#59; it is a real and demonstrated ability that can be evaluated based on results&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The start of the competency movement can be traced back to a paper published in 1973 by David McClelland&#44; who asserted that not only aspects such as knowledge and skills&#44; but also feelings&#44; beliefs&#44; attitudes and behaviours can predict high work performance<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span>&#46; We are referring to empathy&#44; intuition&#44; integrity&#44; perception of reality&#44; the spirit of community&#44; self-confidence&#44; flexibility&#44; and the domain of the individual&#46; These concepts are fully applicable to the world of healthcare and indeed are today recognised as being fundamental aspects of the competencies of a medical practitioner&#46; A Gual <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">et al</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">9 </span>agree with this&#44; stating that for the future we require&#58; physicians who adopt a critical approach&#44; who are communicative and empathetic&#44; individually and socially responsible&#44; make decisions which are good for the patient and the health care system&#44; leaders of the health team&#44; competent&#44; effective and safe&#44; honest and reliable&#44; committed to patients and the organisation&#59; physicians who treat patients&#44; not diseases&#46; In summary&#44; the competencies of a professional combine knowledge &#40;Know&#41;&#44; skills and abilities &#40;know-how&#41;&#44; attitudes and behaviours &#40;how to act&#41;&#44; and values and beliefs &#40;how to be&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Faced with the aforementioned changes and challenges of the 21<span class="elsevierStyleSup">st</span> century&#44; academic and health organisations in various countries began to define basic competencies for physicians in the 1990s and early 2000s including&#58; Tomorrow&#8217;s Doctor<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span>and Scottish Doctor<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22 </span>&#40;UK&#41;&#44; CanMEDS Roles<span class="elsevierStyleSup">23&#44;24</span> &#40;Canada&#41;&#44; the Outcome Project of the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education<span class="elsevierStyleSup">25&#44;26</span> &#40;USA&#41; and the Institute for International Medical Education &#40;IIME&#41; in New York<span class="elsevierStyleSup">27 </span>&#40;Table 1&#41;&#46; The competency domains defined in these models are perfectly applicable to any specialty&#46; Specifically&#44; CanMEDS and the Outcome Project define what all residents must demonstrate upon completing their training&#46; Along these lines&#44; in 2008 the Medical Teaching Unit at Cruces Hospital &#40;in its Competency-based Postgraduate Medical Education &#40;CBPME&#41; project&#44; which started in 2004&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span> defined its model of &#171;Being a Physician&#47;Medical Professional&#187; &#40;Teaching Vision<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span>&#41; for all specialties of the centre&#44; based on the model of the IIME&#44; and incorporating concepts from the Outcome Project&#44; CanMEDS and the American Board of Medical Specialties<span class="elsevierStyleSup">30</span>&#46; Table 2 summarises the model &#171;Being a Physician&#47;Medical Professional at Cruces Hospital&#187;&#44; which is to be the foundation of our competency evaluation system&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">These approaches do not mean that doctors&#44; to date&#44; have not been trained in such competencies&#59; the difference is that in the CBPME<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>project they are made explicit&#44; and those competencies necessary to address changing social and healthcare needs are emphasised<span class="elsevierStyleSup">31</span>&#46; Working with such a model facilitates the development and adaptation of the learning process &#40;learning objectives derived from the competencies&#44; activities&#44; specific tasks&#44; training plans&#44; schedules&#44; methodologies and teaching resources&#41; and the implementation of a final competency assessment &#40;outcome-based assessment&#41;&#46; To bring about the changes required&#44; it is very important that all professionals adopt the same approach and language&#44; a task that will take time&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE WORKPLACE AND THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS IN PROFESSIONALISATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Training in the workplace professionalises the resident by developing their understanding of the knowledge&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; attitudes and values that are present&#44; these days&#44; in the medical profession&#46; However&#44; it can also de-professionalise&#44; as it is difficult to implement educational practices in each and every care setting in which residents train&#46; The workload and other factors associated with healthcare organisations and their management do not facilitate interaction between tutors and residents&#46; Though the residents should not forget that they are primarily responsible for their own training and must be proactive&#44; this climate occasionally leads tutors and staff to forget their teaching role and that the residents are professionals in training&#46; Institutions must guarantee&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>the exercise of leadership from senior and middle management &#40;directors of studies&#44; heads of department&#44; tutors&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>the planning and development of a teaching strategy&#44; with the involvement of all relevant parties &#40;tutors and staff&#41;&#44; facilitating decision-making and accountability&#44; including on the part of residents&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>the resources &#40;structural&#44; material&#44; financial and organisational&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>the development of programmes integrated into the care system in accordance with a defined profile of medical specialist&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>the qualitative and quantitative measurement of results&#46; It is within this scheme that the tutor is essential as a manager of a programme of specialisation within the teaching strategy of the centre&#46; Duties and training tasks should be specified in the training programme contracts of the centres and in the portfolio of services of teaching units&#46; This is a reflection of the duty they have to society as accredited teaching institutions<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Therefore&#44; the objective is to provide a professional with&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>broad and essential training&#44; based on ethical values&#44; behaviours and attitudes and that encompasses &#160;humanistic&#44; scientific and technical aspects&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>an understanding of the scientific method and ability to put it into practice&#44; and to manage complexity and uncertainty&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>a command of scientific language and skills enabling the proper use of computer technology&#44; to facilitate independent learning&#59; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>sufficient experience in the field of interpersonal relations to encourage initiative and teamwork&#44; and the development of skills for personal relations and for effective democratic participation in society<span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span>&#46; To achieve this goal&#44; healthcare centres and teaching units &#40;clinical departments&#41; should be aware that there must be consistency in the training process&#44; taking into account the three stages of the teaching&#47;learning cycle&#58; before&#44; during and after&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Before </span>provides for the social environment of the specialty&#44; the skills to be developed by level&#44; the role of the tutor&#44; the resident&#44; the other trainers and the institution&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">During </span>&#40;interaction&#41; includes training contexts&#44; how learning will be enhanced in each of the contexts&#59; specific&#44; joint and individual tasks&#59; methodological strategies&#59; and ongoing or formative evaluation&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">After&#44; </span>involves evaluation of the learning of the resident&#44; tutor performance&#44; the development of the training process&#44; the programme&#44; the trainers and other agents of the support structure<span class="elsevierStyleSup">32</span>&#46; The tutor&#44; as the pivotal figure in this complex process&#44; with a high level of social responsibility&#44; must acquire and develop certain teaching competencies<span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">EVALUATION WITHIN THE TRAINING PROCESS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Concepts and general principles</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Rigorous and transferable evaluation is the great unmet challenge in the specialised training system&#44; and it will never be possible if all training agents &#40;not just the tutors&#41; are not sure what to evaluate&#44; i&#46;e&#46;&#44; if there is not a clearly defined programme with competencies to be achieved<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34 </span>&#40;a professional profile&#44; of the nephrologist in our case&#41; and with instruments accepted throughout the institution&#46; The evaluation &#40;the <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">after</span>&#41; is a moral obligation to society&#44; the institution&#44; and the resident &#40;it is their right&#44; for the purpose of guiding and supporting them in their learning&#44; and in the acquisition and improvement of their competencies&#41;&#46; Evaluation forms part of a complex training process and should be well defined a priori&#46; Indeed&#44; it is also a process in itself that generates data through assessment applying reference criteria&#44; and this information is used to make judgments and decisions&#46; These decisions can take many forms&#44; but can be categorised under two broad types&#58; a qualifying decision&#44; a sanction&#44; pass&#47;fail&#44; with no possibility of rectification&#44; except by undergoing a new evaluation process &#40;this type is called a <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">summative </span>assessment&#41; and another type which can use the same instruments but is based on results&#46; This latter type of evaluation allows the candidate to understand their strengths and weaknesses and create plans for improvement &#40;it is known as <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">formative </span>assessment&#41;&#46; Both demand an equal degree of rigor in their procedure and documentation&#46; In the current training system&#44; we must move away from the ingrained cultural concept of &#171;pass&#47;fail&#187;&#44; and thoroughly develop formative assessment&#46; It should be realised that an evaluation process tends to fail if the following questions have not been clearly answered beforehand<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span>&#58; Which competencies are to be evaluated&#63;&#46; How&#63; &#40;with what instruments&#63;&#41;&#46; Why evaluate&#63; &#40;what is the objective&#63;&#41;&#46; When&#63;&#46; By whom&#63;&#46; With what resources&#63;&#44; and is there collaboration across the entire team&#63;&#46; Therefore&#44; &#160;every evaluation should conform to the following principles<span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span>&#58;<span class="elsevierStyleSup"> </span>it should<span class="elsevierStyleItalic"> </span>be&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>appropriate to the purpose &#40;why&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>based on the program content &#40;what&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>use methods selected in terms of validity&#44; reliability and feasibility &#40;based on the best available evidence&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">4&#41; </span>have standardised&#44; transparent and public documentation and methods&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">5&#41; </span>provide important and positive feedback &#40;educational evaluation&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">6&#41; </span>be overseen by evaluators with demonstrated ability and willingness to collaborate &#40;who&#63;&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">7&#41; </span>allow for lay people to assess or examine areas in which they are competent &#40;e&#46;g&#46;&#44; communication&#44; professionalism&#41;&#59; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">8&#41; </span>receive sufficient resources&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">9&#41; </span>have a comprehensive system of quality assurance&#46; The evaluation should not be limited to the resident but rather must embrace the programme&#44; process&#44; structure and training agents&#44; as the key to improvement&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">What to evaluate and how to assess the competencies of a professional</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Evaluation of residents has&#44; as its objective&#44; to improve and facilitate the development of knowledge&#44; skills&#44; abilities&#44; attitudes and values&#46; To achieve this objective will require ongoing assessment of the resident in their acquisition of knowledge&#44; skills and attitudes&#44; and monitoring of the successes or failures of the design and operation of the training programmes&#46; The assessment of professional competence involves various dimensions that are reflected in actions<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22</span>&#58; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">1&#41; </span>what the doctor is able to do&#58; technical intelligences &#40;clinical competencies and skills&#41;&#44; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">2&#41; </span>how the doctor approaches their practice&#58; intellectual &#40;basic knowledge&#41;&#44; emotional &#40;attitude&#41;&#44; the creative and analytical &#40;reasoning&#41; intelligences&#44; and <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">3&#41; </span>the doctor as a professional&#58; personal intelligences &#40;values&#44; ethics&#44; professionalism&#41;&#46; There are many validated tools and methods to assess each of these areas&#44; which when combined&#44; allow us to judge the competence of a professional&#46; A description of these and their application is beyond the scope of this article&#44; and there are excellent reviews on the subject<span class="elsevierStyleSup">36&#44;37</span>&#46; &#160;A particularly useful document is the Toolbox &#40;Outcome Project&#44; ACGME<span class="elsevierStyleSup">38</span>&#41;&#44; which describes each instrument well&#44; its underlying concept&#44; psychometric qualities&#44; utility&#44; validity and reliability&#46; Based on that document and grouping competencies into seven domains&#44; as described in Table 2&#44; the potential assessment tools for each domain would be&#58;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">1&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Professional values&#44; attitudes&#44; behaviour and ethics&#58; </span>Multiple source feedback &#40;MSF&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span>&#44; commonly used in the private sector&#44; patient point of view&#44; and objective structured clinical examination &#40;OSCE&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">40</span>&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">2&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Clinical skills &#40;clinical healthcare expert&#41;&#58; </span>standardised patients&#44; simulations&#44; OSCE&#44; clinical evaluation by direct observation of clinical practice in the workplace &#40;Mini-CEX - Mini-Clinical Evaluation Exercise&#44; DOPs - Directly Observed Procedural Skills<span class="elsevierStyleSup">41&#44;42</span>&#41;&#44; questionnaires&#44; case studies&#44; clinical records&#44; audits&#44; peer reviews&#44; quality indicators&#44; reports&#44; and portfolios<span class="elsevierStyleSup">43</span>&#46; In relation to this&#44; Cruces Hospital is developing its own model of reflective logbook&#47;report to form the basis of future portfolios<span class="elsevierStyleSup">44&#44;45</span>&#46; Note&#44; however&#44; in terms of the clinical evaluation tests by direct observation&#44; they have been developed in the Anglo-Saxon world to deal with a concern that Norcini highlights in his article<span class="elsevierStyleSup">41</span>&#44; that the trainees are seldom observed&#44; so the circumstances in our environment may be different&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">3&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Scientific foundations of medicine &#40;medical knowledge&#41;&#58; </span>testing all types of knowledge&#44; multiple-choice questions &#40;MCQs&#41;&#44; extended-matching items &#40;EMIs&#41;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">46</span>&#44; structured cases&#44; simulations and models&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">4&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Communication&#58; </span>patient opinions&#44; MSF&#44; standardised patients&#44; and OSCE&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">5&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Public health systems &#40;health promoter and manager of resources&#41;&#58; </span>MSF&#44; questionnaires&#44; and patient opinions&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">6&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Information management&#58; </span>computer simulations&#44; and cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">7&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">Critical analysis and research&#44; and self-directed learning&#58; </span>portfolios&#44; reflective reports&#44; and standardised cases&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">To evaluate the competencies of a professional many dimensions must be considered&#44; it being necessary to extrapolate from partial data to arrive at a complete picture&#46; Nevertheless&#44; we should start with very simple&#44; inexpensive instruments&#44; accepted and understood by all clinical staff and the resident&#44; and that provide added value to our Postgraduate Medical Education system&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">CONCLUSION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Specialised training based on competencies is the answer to a globalised world in permanent change&#46; To take this forward&#44; medical centres and services should develop their own projects&#44; as allowed for within the existing regulatory framework&#46; Health institutions should be aware of their duty to society given their accreditation as teaching bodies&#46; However&#44; if they are to exert effective leadership in the development of training programmes it is essential that structural&#44; organisational and human resources are made available&#46; In Spain&#44; this is already provided for in current legislation&#44; and the regional governments are responsible for implementing and developing this infrastructure without further delay&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Acknowledgements</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Acknowledgements to Pilar Mart&#237;nez Clar&#233;s&#44; Professor in the Department of Diagnostic and Research Methods applied to Education&#44; Faculty of Education &#40;University of Murcia&#41; for her personal contribution to the content of this text&#44; to the Tutors of the Competency Assessment Group &#40;Andima Basterretxea&#44; Elena Bereziartua&#44; Milagros Iriberri and Agust&#237;n Mart&#237;nez-Berriochoa&#41; and to M&#170; Jes&#250;s Gonz&#225;lez-Garc&#237;a&#44; secretary of the Medical Teaching Unit at Cruces Hospital&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;w477710581710559&#95;18107&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;1&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10783&#95;en&#95;w477710581710559&#95;18107&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7509&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;1&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 1&#46; Models of competency domains</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;w477710581610559&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;2&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;10559&#95;108&#95;10785&#95;en&#95;w477710581610559&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;10559&#95;18623&#95;7511&#95;es&#95;tabla&#95;2&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 2&#46; Physicians&#47;Professionals at Cruces Hospital &#40;2008&#41;</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara">In a world undergoing constant change&#44; in the era of globalisation&#44; the training of medical professionals should be under constant review so that it can be tailored to meet the needs of this society in transition&#46; This is all the more true at times of economic uncertainty&#44; such as the current conditions&#44; which have a direct impact on health services&#46; Professionals need new Competencies for new times&#46; Over the last decade initiatives have emerged in various Anglo-Saxon countries which have defined a framework of basic Competencies that all medical specialists should demonstrate in their professional practice&#46; In addition to this&#44; we must respond to the creation of the European Higher Education Area which has implications for specialised training&#46; In Spain&#44; training for medical specialists was in need of an overhaul and the recently passed law &#40;Real Decreto 183&#47;2008&#41; will allow us to move forward and implement&#44; in medical education&#44; initiatives and innovations required in our medical centres&#44; to respond to the new society and bring us in line with international professional education and practice&#46; The way forward is a Competency-based model for medical education with assessment of these Competencies using simple instruments&#44; validated and accepted by all the stakeholders&#46; The institutions involved &#40;hospitals&#44; medical centres and other healthcare services&#41; should trial different approaches within the general framework established by the current legislation and be conscious of the duty they have to society as accredited training organisations&#46; Accordingly&#44; they should consolidate their teaching and learning structures and the various different educational roles &#40;directors of studies&#44; tutors&#44; and other teaching positions&#41;&#44; showing the leadership necessary to allow proper implementation of training programmes&#46; For this&#44; the Spanish regional governments must develop their own legislation regulating Medical Specialty Training&#46; So&#44; medical professionals should receive training&#44; based on ethical values&#44; behaviours and attitudes that considers humanistic&#44; scientific and technical factors&#44; developing an understanding of the scientific method and ability to put it into practice&#59; skills to manage complexity and uncertainty&#59; a command of scientific&#44; technical and IT terminology&#44; to facilitate independent learning&#59; and a capacity for initiative and teamwork&#44; as well as skills for personal activities and for making an effective&#44; democratic contribution both within health organisations and in the wider society&#46;</p>"
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Idiomas
Nefrología (English Edition)
es en

¿Es usted profesional sanitario apto para prescribir o dispensar medicamentos?

Are you a health professional able to prescribe or dispense drugs?