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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">INTRODUCTION </span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The incidence and prevalence of chronic kidney disease &#40;CKD&#41; continue to rise in such a way that it is considered a worldwide public health threat&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span> Many patients with chronic nephropathy go on to develop terminal chronic kidney failure &#40;TCKF&#41;&#44; with diabetes being the most common cause both in Spain and in most western countries&#46; The progression of chronic kidney disease towards loss of function and renal sclerosis also appears in many glomerular&#44; interstitial and vascular chronic nephropathies&#46; Essentially&#44; it is thought that&#44; once enough renal mass is lost&#44; the residual nephrons suffer from intraglomerular hypertension&#44; a phenomenon which produces local activation of&#44; among others&#44; the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system &#40;RAAS&#41;&#44; inducing TGF-beta 1 and the production of extracellular matrix which finally accelerates the loss of renal mass&#46; This physiopathological concept&#44; known as the hyperfiltration theory&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span> is the base of clinical testing of the usefulness of the blockade of RAAS&#44; both in diabetic nephropathy and other chronic nephropathies&#46; However&#44; despite the significant advances that these treatments have brought about &#40;they are able to reduce or stabilise the rate of the loss of renal function&#41;&#44; the number of incident patients requiring kidney replacement treatment&#44; whether peritoneal dialysis&#44; haemodialysis or kidney transplants&#44; continues to rise&#46; Within this context of a shortage of treatments or strategies able to induce a decline in chronic nephropathy&#44; the study of renal regeneration mechanisms acquires a great deal of interest&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KIDNEY REGENERATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">When adult tissue is damaged&#44; the continuous cell renewal process is crucial for its maintenance and&#44; in certain organs&#44; this is achieved by the presence of stem cells&#46; Stem cells enable periodic cell renewal or regeneration when tissue is damaged&#44; and they have the capacity for cell renewal through mitotic divisions or for differentiation into the cell lines of the corresponding organ&#46; Furthermore&#44; some adult stem cells from bone marrow are able to differentiate into more than one type of cell &#40;mesenchymal and hematopoietic&#41;&#46; In general&#44; adult stem cells are a self-renewing cell population&#58; they are quiescent cells that divide asymmetrically during tissue regeneration&#44; on the one hand&#44; into stem cells and&#44; on the other&#44; into transit-amplifying cells which proliferate&#44; differentiate and lastly&#44; reconstruct damaged tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> One of the ways to identify stem cells in solid organs is to stain them with bromodeoxyuridine &#40;BrdU&#41;&#46; Quiescent cells&#44; which do not divide&#44; maintain the high levels of BrdU deposited in their genome&#44; whereas the dividing&#44; more mature stem cells steadily dilute the BrdU incorporated into their genomes as they proliferate&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The kidneys are traditionally considered organs which are unable to regenerate&#46; Yet&#44; they possess a certain degree of regeneration which varies according to the species&#46; Some cartilaginous fish form nephrons during adulthood&#44; while mammals have lost this capacity&#46; In fact&#44; humans do not form new nephrons after 36 weeks of gestation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> The kidneys are one of the few organs to undergo mesenchymal-epithelial transition &#40;MET&#41; during their development&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> This process is controlled by growth factors such as hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41; and bone morphogenetic protein-7 &#40;BMP-7&#41;&#44; amongst many others&#46; Therefore&#44; kidney development in mammals requires a conversion process of the metanephric mesenchymal cells into polarised epithelial cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> As mentioned above&#44; when sufficiently extensive chronic renal injury occurs&#44; whatever the cause&#44; kidney function worsens inexorably until reaching TCKF&#44; with no treatment available to reverse this process&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span> One of the processes taking place in the progression of nephropathies is epithelial-mesenchymal transition capable of producing extracellular matrix&#46; To be precise&#44; this is the inverse process to that taking place during foetal development of the kidney&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Renal regeneration could be approached using different strategies&#44; such as the administration of growth factors capable of reversing epithelial-mesenchyma transition&#44; and even by the mobilisation or infusion of endogenous &#40;from the kidney itself&#41; or exogenous &#40;from bone marrow&#41; stem cells&#46; However&#44; this is an extremely difficult challenge&#46; Kidneys have a very complex architecture&#44; great cellular heterogeneity and their cell renewal is slow&#46; They have over 24 types of mature stem cell distributed in vascular&#44; interstitial&#44; glomerular and tubular compartments&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> All of this complicates the search for adult stem cells<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span> capable of repairing the kidney by replacing damaged cells&#46; In any case&#44; renal regeneration requires very precise mechanisms capable of directing the repair of each of the damaged renal compartments&#46; Studies have been performed supporting the presence of stem cells in adult kidneys&#44; showing that these cells have an intrinsic function&#46; However&#44; the participation of stem cells derived from bone marrow is not so clear &#40;Table 1&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12-17</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">STEM CELLS AND RENAL REGENERATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Renal stem cells</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Kidneys have a very complex structure and a very low degree of regeneration compared with other organs&#46; This makes it difficult to study the existence of renal stem cell niches and to investigate how they participate in organ repair&#46; Overcoming these difficulties with different strategies&#44; some stem cell niches have been proposed in different renal compartments&#46; Maeshima et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span> described a population of tubular progenitors with regenerative properties which proliferate and differentiate in epithelial cells during tubular regeneration&#46; In fact&#44; the origin of the cells that replace the damaged tubular epithelial cells is not known&#44; but some studies suggest that they are from the kidneys and not from bone marrow&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14</span> Oliver et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> identified the renal papillae as a stem cell niche in the adult kidney&#46; They observed a group of cells in this area that retained BrdU&#46; After ischemic damage&#44; they found that these cells entered a cell cycle&#44; and thus the BrdU stains disappeared&#46; Furthermore&#44; these cells were able to form spheres <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46; However&#44; these cells being located in the renal papillae creates doubts about how they are able to repopulate the most proximal segments of the nephron&#46; Recent studies in humans have identified a subset of renal progenitors CD24&#43;CD133&#43; in the Bowman&#8217;s capsule&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span> near to the tubular pole&#46; This location would allow them to repair tubular and glomerular epithelial cells&#46; It has been described that the progenitor cells CD24&#43;CD133&#43; have the capacity to differentiate&#44; providing a regenerative mechanism for damaged epithelial cells in the kidneys&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;19</span> The existence of these kidney epithelial progenitor cells provides a possible explanation for the regression of kidney lesions&#46; The damage repair process probably requires the capacity to slow the fibrotic response&#44; so progenitor cells should be able to regenerate tissue and&#44; at the same time&#44; prevent extracellular matrix accumulation<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span> by means of their capacity to secrete growth factors&#44; as will be detailed below&#46; In another study&#44; Appel et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> postulated that&#44; as podocytes have no self-renewal capacity&#44; the glomerular parietal epithelial cells &#40;which proliferate and are adjacent to the podocytes&#41; might migrate to the glomerular capillary and differentiate into podocytes&#46; Although several niches of renal stem cells have been identified&#44; it is still not known what their role is and how they behave in repairs after a kidney injury&#46; Still&#44; renal stem cells could be therapeutic targets for remodelling damaged kidney tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Bone marrow stem cells</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Bone marrow contains different types of stem cells&#44; including haematopoietic &#40;HSCs&#41; and mesenchymal &#40;MSCs&#41; stem cells and endothelial progenitor cells&#46; HSCs express surface markers such as Sca-1&#44; c-kit&#44; CD90 in mice&#44; and CD34&#44; CD133&#44; CXCR4 and CD150 in humans&#44; and can differentiate into any type of adult blood cell&#46; Besides creating a support environment for HSCs&#44; MSCs are able to differentiate into various types of mesenchymal cells such as bone&#44; cartilage&#44; muscle&#44; neurons&#44; hepatocytes and adipose tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22-25</span> They can adhere to plastic and express surface markers such as CD90&#44; CD73&#44; CD105&#44; CD44 and CD29&#46; MSCs also express growth factors such as VEGF&#44; HGF and IGF-1&#44; as well as antiapoptotic cytokines&#46; At present the role of marrow bone stem cells in the kidney regeneration after damage is being investigated&#46; Cell therapy is one of the fields of greatest interest in biomedicine at this time&#44; so much so that the use of these multipotent cells to re-establish damage organ function has generated remarkable expectation&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The most common technique for studying the plasticity of bone marrow cells is bone marrow transplantation &#40;BMT&#41;&#46; The receptor&#8217;s bone marrow cells are replaced by those of the donor and&#44; once chimerism is established&#44; the donor cells can be identified by different strategies&#46; Among these we can highlight the identification of the Y chromosome in a female receptor&#44; the expression of molecules such as beta-galactosidase&#44; luciferase or enhanced green fluorescent protein &#40;EGFP&#41;&#44; or a function being re-established in knockout animal model&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span> To check the cell type &#40;tubular&#44; mesangial&#44; etc&#46;&#41; that the marrow bone cells have given rise to&#44; the use of specific protein staining with immunohistochemistry&#44; immunofluorescence and analysis with a confocal microscope are common&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A significant number of glomerulopathies begin with podocyte injury or loss&#46; Podocytes are cells with complex interdigitations which participate in the synthesis of components of the glomerular basement membrane &#40;GBM&#41;&#44; collagen IV being one of the most important&#46; Several studies have suggested the integration of cells derived from bone marrow as functional podocytes&#46; Studies have been performed with mice models of Alport syndrome&#46; The mice had mutations in the gene which codifies for the alpha chain of the collagen IV&#44; bringing about defects in the GBM&#44; proteinuria and kidney failure&#46; Prodromidi et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span><span class="elsevierStyleBold"> </span>and Sugimoto et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span> observed that bone marrow cells contribute to the regeneration of podocytes in damaged glomeruli&#44; leading to the expression of the collagen IV alpha-3 chain being re-established and a decrease in proteinuria&#46; In a study with mice published a few years ago&#44; the BMT from obese diabetic db&#47;db mice in healthy non-diabetic mice transferred diabetic nephropathy to the receptor mice without them becoming hyperglycaemic&#46; The authors postulated that the glomerulus was probably repopulated by mesangial and endothelial cells from the db&#47;db donor mice and that these were responsible for the albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis that the receptor mice developed&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">On the other hand&#44; there are authors who suggest that bone marrow cells participate in renal regeneration by fusing with the renal cells themselves&#46; In fact&#44; studies in livers have shown that hepatocytes generated after liver damage are formed by cellular fusion&#44; and not by differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">30-32</span> Therefore&#44; a possible fusion between bone marrow stem cells and epithelial tubular cells is postulated&#46; Held et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span> observed that&#44; after injury&#44; tubular epithelial cells are generated by the fusion of hematopoietic cells and existing proximal tubular cells&#44; and not by transdifferentiation&#46; However&#44; this is still a very controversial matter since several studies suggest a paracrine&#47;endocrine action of endogenous stem cells instead of direct repopulation of the damaged nephrons&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span> In short&#44; besides the possible role of endogenous stem cells &#40;renal&#41;&#44; other studies support the idea of differentiation and&#47;or fusion of cells from bone marrow into precursor cells of damaged kidney cells &#40;figure 1&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">GROWTH FACTORS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Tubular epithelial cells which survive damage secrete growth factors which could interact with resident cells and renal and extrarenal stem cells&#44; accelerating tubular repair mechanisms&#46; The tubular epithelium exists in a relatively quiescent to slowly replicating state &#40;also a characteristic of stem cells&#41;&#44; but&#44; on the other hand&#44; it has a remarkable morphogenic regeneration capacity after severe toxic or ischemic aggression&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span> Although some studies show how stem cells migrate to damaged tissue&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">36&#44;37</span> most authors do not support the idea of the integration of these cells into injured organs&#46; In this respect&#44; Duffield et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;38</span> showed that kidney repair is independent of the participation of cells derived from bone marrow&#44; something also observed by Lin et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span> On the other hand&#44; Morigi et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span> showed how the infusion of human mesenchymal cells from bone marrow led to a decrease in proximal tubular damage and improved kidney function in mice&#46; Several studies have been performed which have not been able to verify the differentiation of stem cells into epithelial cells&#44; but others have described how stem cells contribute to renal recovery&#46; Thus&#44; it was proposed that cell migration only facilitates regeneration because of an endocrine&#47;paracrine effect<span class="elsevierStyleSup">40&#44;41</span> and it is the kidney cells themselves that re-establish the tubular epithelium&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;38&#44;42</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Interaction between stem cells&#44; resident kidney cells and growth factors</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The interaction between mesenchymal and epithelial cells and growth factors is fundamental for nephrogenesis and for maintaining the integrity of adult organs&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44 </span>This reciprocated interaction between mesenchymal-epithelial cells is a key factor in renal regeneration after damage&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Studies using animal models of acute kidney injury have been performed administering growth factors such as epidermal growth factor &#40;EGF&#41;&#44; hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41; or insulin-like growth factor 1 &#40;IGF-1&#41;&#46; They observed a decrease in mortality due to kidney function being restored and normalised&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span> In fact&#44; it is well known that tubular epithelial cells that survive damage secrete growth factors and cytokines involved in kidney repair mechanisms&#46; On the other hand&#44; it seems to have been proven that MSC have a protective effect&#44; especially in acute kidney injury models&#44; thanks to their ability to express growth factors such as VEGF&#44; HGF and IGF-1&#44; which facilitate recovery from kidney injury&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#44;47</span> The mechanism of action of this system could have several modes&#58; autocrine &#40;the kidney cells themselves secrete growth factors&#41;&#44; paracrine &#40;renal and bone marrow stem cells&#41; and endocrine &#40;soluble circulating factors&#41;&#46; A brief review of some of these factors is given below&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic growth factor &#40;GDNF&#41;&#46;</span> This factor is involved in renal organogenesis&#46; The exogenous administration of GDNF protects against ischemic kidney injury in a mouse and accelerates repair mechanisms&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">In vitro</span>&#44; GDNF induces MSC migration and inhibits MSC apoptosis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Epidermal growth factor &#40;EGF&#41;&#46;</span> This factor is synthesised in the renal epithelium and increases after kidney damage&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span> It exerts different actions on several types of cells&#44; such as migration and proliferation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">50&#44;51</span> EGF has been shown to induce cellular proliferation and MSC migration <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro&#46;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41;&#46;</span> &#160;It is a heterodimer consisting of 60-kDa alpha-chain and a &#160;34-kDa beta-chain&#46; The interaction of HGF and its c-Met receptor leads to the activation of the tyrosine kinase pathway&#44; giving rise to mitogenic and angiogenic activity in several types of cells&#44; particularly in epithelial and endothelial cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span> Furthermore&#44; HGF has anti-apoptotic and antifibrotic effects&#46; The anti-apoptotic effect is directly related to the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-Akt signal pathway&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span> while the antifibrotic effect is linked to its antagonist action on TGF beta-1&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span>HGF modulates the balance between extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation&#44; increasing expression from matrix metalloproteases &#40;MMP&#41; and reducing production of MMP inhibitors &#40;TIMP&#41;&#46; Furthermore&#44; HGF suppresses the effect of TGF beta-1 by blocking the TGF beta&#47;Smad pathway&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span> HGF is able to counteract the profibrotic action of TGF beta-1 in different renal cells through different mechanisms of action&#44; amongst which the inhibition of epithelium-mesenchyma transition stands out&#46; It is also known that TGF beta-1 and HGF inhibit each other&#39;s synthesis in a reciprocal fashion<span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span> and that HGF also down-regulates the expression of TGF beta-1 receptors <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span>&#46; Some authors described a decrease in TGF beta-1 using an exogenous HGF supplement in several chronic damage models&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">60-62</span> It is worth pointing out that HGF also has an effect on bone marrow cells&#44; attracting stem cells to the site of the damage&#46; It is not known if HGF has a cellular mobilisation and&#47;or localisation effect on these cells&#46; In a study performed using a model of liver damage&#44; Kollet et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span> showed the effect of HGF on the recruitment of hematopoietic cells in liver damage&#46; When the liver is damaged &#40;by irradiation or inflammation&#41; there is an increase in the expression of SDF-1 and MMP-9 activity&#44; giving rise to the recruitment of hematopoietic progenitor cells mediated by SDF-1&#46; In another study performed using a mouse model of CCl<span class="elsevierStyleInf">4</span>-induced hepatic fibrosis<span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span>&#44; it was observed that HGF per se did not increase the expression of MMP-9&#46; Treatment with G-CSF is used to promote the recruitment of cells from bone marrow&#46; Overexpression of HGF together with treatment with G-CSF synergistically increased MMP-9 in fibrotic liver while increasing the number of cells from bone marrow and liver cells expressing MMP-9&#46; In addition&#44; it is known that the inhibition of HGF activity leads to impaired tissue repair&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">57&#44;66</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Vascular endothelial growth factor &#40;VEGF&#41;&#46; </span>This is a factor which regulates vascular growth both in normal and damaged tissue&#46; Mesenchymal cells can secrete this factor&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">67-69</span> Renal ischemia inhibits the expression of VEGF through diverse mechanisms&#44; shifting the balance from a proangiogenic to an antiangiogenic environment&#44; thus inhibiting kidney repair&#46; MSCs express VEGF and could exert a renoprotective&#44; paracrine action which facilitates recovery from acute kidney injury&#46; It has even been postulated that giving high doses of erythropoietin in a model of endothelial lesion attenuates the damage by liberating VEGF&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In short&#44; certain growth factors&#44; many of which are involved in renal embryogenesis&#44; are able to directly induce a certain degree of tissue repair&#44; while possibly acting on resident stem cells&#44; facilitating their differentiation and even contributing to the recruitment in the kidneys of stem cells from bone marrow which&#44; directly or through the secretion of growth factors&#44; play a part in renal regeneration &#40;figure 2&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KEY CONCEPTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The incidence of CKD continues to increase and many patients go on to develop TCKF despite the advances in renoprotection&#46; Because of this&#44; there is a huge interest in the study of renal regeneration mechanisms&#44; looking for future clinical applications&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Possible renal stem cell niches have been described in the renal papillae and the urinary pole of the Bowman&#8217;s capsule&#44; and tubular progenitor cells have also been observed&#46; It has not been proven irrefutably that stem cells from bone marrow differentiate and integrate <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> like adult renal cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The niche of renal stem cells CD24&#43;CD133&#43; located in the urinary pole of the Bowman&#8217;s capsule in humans could contribute to tubular and podocyte regeneration&#46; Stem cells from bone marrow could theoretically differentiate into endothelial and mesangial cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The injury repair process is achieved by slowing the fibrotic response first&#44; and then restoring the tissue architecture of the organ&#46; Administering certain growth factors&#44; at the same time as acting as an antifibrotic&#44; could mobilise stem cells from the kidney and bone marrow&#46; These cells facilitate renal regeneration by fusing with resident renal cells directly&#44; or through paracrine mechanisms&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">This research has been possible thanks to the ISCIII&#47;FIS P106&#47;0582 and PS09&#47;01630 grants&#46; Maria Flaquer has received an IDIBELL predoctoral grant&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7134&#95;en&#95;w477710372710463t1&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7134&#95;en&#95;w477710372710463t1&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 1&#46; - Participation of endogeneous &#40;renal&#41; or exogeneous &#40;from bone marrow&#41; stem cells in renal tissue regeneration</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7135&#95;en&#95;w477710372910463&#95;fig1&#95;en&#46;ppt" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7135&#95;en&#95;w477710372910463&#95;fig1&#95;en&#46;ppt</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Stem cells and renal renegeneration</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7136&#95;en&#95;w477710372810463&#95;figura&#95;2&#95;en&#46;ppt" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7136&#95;en&#95;w477710372810463&#95;figura&#95;2&#95;en&#46;ppt</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 2&#46; Growth factors and renal renegeneration</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara">Cuando se produce un da&#241;o en un tejido adulto&#44; el proceso de renovaci&#243;n celular continuada es cr&#237;tico y crucial para la reparaci&#243;n del mismo y&#44; en determinados &#243;rganos&#44; se facilita por la presencia de c&#233;lulas madre o progenitoras&#46; El ri&#241;&#243;n&#44; a diferencia de otros &#243;rganos como el h&#237;gado&#44; es de regeneraci&#243;n lenta&#46; Incluso ha sido considerado durante a&#241;os como incapaz de regenerarse&#46; Sin embargo&#44; varios estudios han demostrado que existen posibles nichos de c&#233;lulas madre renales en la papila renal&#44; progenitores tubulares o progenitores renales CD24&#43;CD133&#43; localizados en el polo urinario de la c&#225;psula de Bowman&#46; Estas c&#233;lulas podr&#237;an participar te&#243;ricamente en la reparaci&#243;n de la lesi&#243;n renal&#46; Sin embargo&#44; todav&#237;a no se ha demostrado de forma precisa cu&#225;l ser&#237;a su papel ni c&#243;mo actuar&#237;an despu&#233;s del da&#241;o&#46; A&#250;n as&#237;&#44; estas c&#233;lulas madre renales podr&#237;an ser dianas terap&#233;uticas para el remodelado del tejido renal da&#241;ado&#46; Por otro lado&#44; se ha postulado que las c&#233;lulas madre derivadas de la m&#233;dula &#243;sea podr&#237;an participar en la regeneraci&#243;n renal&#44; especialmente las de estirpe mesenquimal&#46; Sin embargo&#44; tampoco se conoce con exactitud el modo en que actuar&#237;an&#46; Hay estudios que sugieren la existencia de fusi&#243;n celular entre estas c&#233;lulas y c&#233;lulas residentes&#44; otros apuntan a su diferenciaci&#243;n en c&#233;lulas renales&#44; mientras que otros sugieren una acci&#243;n paracrina responsable del efecto reparador a trav&#233;s de la secreci&#243;n de factores de crecimiento como HGF&#44; VEGF y IGF-1&#46; Todas estas mol&#233;culas secretadas proporcionar&#237;an un entorno regenerativo que limitar&#237;a el &#225;rea del da&#241;o y que facilitar&#237;a la migraci&#243;n de las c&#233;lulas madre&#46;</p>"
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Growth factors and renal regeneration
Factores de crecimiento y regeneración renal
M.. Flaquera, P.. Romagnanib, J.M.. Cruzadoc
a Laboratori de Nefrologia Experimental, IDIBELL, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona,
b Excellence Centre for Research, Transfer and High Education for the Development of DE NOVO Therapies (DENOTHE), University of Florence, Florencia, Italia,
c Servicio de Nefrología Hospital de Bellvitge. IDIBELL, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona,
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    "textoCompleto" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">INTRODUCTION </span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The incidence and prevalence of chronic kidney disease &#40;CKD&#41; continue to rise in such a way that it is considered a worldwide public health threat&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">1&#44;2</span> Many patients with chronic nephropathy go on to develop terminal chronic kidney failure &#40;TCKF&#41;&#44; with diabetes being the most common cause both in Spain and in most western countries&#46; The progression of chronic kidney disease towards loss of function and renal sclerosis also appears in many glomerular&#44; interstitial and vascular chronic nephropathies&#46; Essentially&#44; it is thought that&#44; once enough renal mass is lost&#44; the residual nephrons suffer from intraglomerular hypertension&#44; a phenomenon which produces local activation of&#44; among others&#44; the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system &#40;RAAS&#41;&#44; inducing TGF-beta 1 and the production of extracellular matrix which finally accelerates the loss of renal mass&#46; This physiopathological concept&#44; known as the hyperfiltration theory&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">3</span> is the base of clinical testing of the usefulness of the blockade of RAAS&#44; both in diabetic nephropathy and other chronic nephropathies&#46; However&#44; despite the significant advances that these treatments have brought about &#40;they are able to reduce or stabilise the rate of the loss of renal function&#41;&#44; the number of incident patients requiring kidney replacement treatment&#44; whether peritoneal dialysis&#44; haemodialysis or kidney transplants&#44; continues to rise&#46; Within this context of a shortage of treatments or strategies able to induce a decline in chronic nephropathy&#44; the study of renal regeneration mechanisms acquires a great deal of interest&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">4&#44;5</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KIDNEY REGENERATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">When adult tissue is damaged&#44; the continuous cell renewal process is crucial for its maintenance and&#44; in certain organs&#44; this is achieved by the presence of stem cells&#46; Stem cells enable periodic cell renewal or regeneration when tissue is damaged&#44; and they have the capacity for cell renewal through mitotic divisions or for differentiation into the cell lines of the corresponding organ&#46; Furthermore&#44; some adult stem cells from bone marrow are able to differentiate into more than one type of cell &#40;mesenchymal and hematopoietic&#41;&#46; In general&#44; adult stem cells are a self-renewing cell population&#58; they are quiescent cells that divide asymmetrically during tissue regeneration&#44; on the one hand&#44; into stem cells and&#44; on the other&#44; into transit-amplifying cells which proliferate&#44; differentiate and lastly&#44; reconstruct damaged tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">6</span> One of the ways to identify stem cells in solid organs is to stain them with bromodeoxyuridine &#40;BrdU&#41;&#46; Quiescent cells&#44; which do not divide&#44; maintain the high levels of BrdU deposited in their genome&#44; whereas the dividing&#44; more mature stem cells steadily dilute the BrdU incorporated into their genomes as they proliferate&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The kidneys are traditionally considered organs which are unable to regenerate&#46; Yet&#44; they possess a certain degree of regeneration which varies according to the species&#46; Some cartilaginous fish form nephrons during adulthood&#44; while mammals have lost this capacity&#46; In fact&#44; humans do not form new nephrons after 36 weeks of gestation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">7</span> The kidneys are one of the few organs to undergo mesenchymal-epithelial transition &#40;MET&#41; during their development&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> This process is controlled by growth factors such as hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41; and bone morphogenetic protein-7 &#40;BMP-7&#41;&#44; amongst many others&#46; Therefore&#44; kidney development in mammals requires a conversion process of the metanephric mesenchymal cells into polarised epithelial cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">9</span> As mentioned above&#44; when sufficiently extensive chronic renal injury occurs&#44; whatever the cause&#44; kidney function worsens inexorably until reaching TCKF&#44; with no treatment available to reverse this process&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">10</span> One of the processes taking place in the progression of nephropathies is epithelial-mesenchymal transition capable of producing extracellular matrix&#46; To be precise&#44; this is the inverse process to that taking place during foetal development of the kidney&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Renal regeneration could be approached using different strategies&#44; such as the administration of growth factors capable of reversing epithelial-mesenchyma transition&#44; and even by the mobilisation or infusion of endogenous &#40;from the kidney itself&#41; or exogenous &#40;from bone marrow&#41; stem cells&#46; However&#44; this is an extremely difficult challenge&#46; Kidneys have a very complex architecture&#44; great cellular heterogeneity and their cell renewal is slow&#46; They have over 24 types of mature stem cell distributed in vascular&#44; interstitial&#44; glomerular and tubular compartments&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">8</span> All of this complicates the search for adult stem cells<span class="elsevierStyleSup">11</span> capable of repairing the kidney by replacing damaged cells&#46; In any case&#44; renal regeneration requires very precise mechanisms capable of directing the repair of each of the damaged renal compartments&#46; Studies have been performed supporting the presence of stem cells in adult kidneys&#44; showing that these cells have an intrinsic function&#46; However&#44; the participation of stem cells derived from bone marrow is not so clear &#40;Table 1&#41;&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12-17</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">STEM CELLS AND RENAL REGENERATION</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Renal stem cells</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Kidneys have a very complex structure and a very low degree of regeneration compared with other organs&#46; This makes it difficult to study the existence of renal stem cell niches and to investigate how they participate in organ repair&#46; Overcoming these difficulties with different strategies&#44; some stem cell niches have been proposed in different renal compartments&#46; Maeshima et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">12</span> described a population of tubular progenitors with regenerative properties which proliferate and differentiate in epithelial cells during tubular regeneration&#46; In fact&#44; the origin of the cells that replace the damaged tubular epithelial cells is not known&#44; but some studies suggest that they are from the kidneys and not from bone marrow&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14</span> Oliver et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">15</span> identified the renal papillae as a stem cell niche in the adult kidney&#46; They observed a group of cells in this area that retained BrdU&#46; After ischemic damage&#44; they found that these cells entered a cell cycle&#44; and thus the BrdU stains disappeared&#46; Furthermore&#44; these cells were able to form spheres <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro</span>&#46; However&#44; these cells being located in the renal papillae creates doubts about how they are able to repopulate the most proximal segments of the nephron&#46; Recent studies in humans have identified a subset of renal progenitors CD24&#43;CD133&#43; in the Bowman&#8217;s capsule&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">16</span> near to the tubular pole&#46; This location would allow them to repair tubular and glomerular epithelial cells&#46; It has been described that the progenitor cells CD24&#43;CD133&#43; have the capacity to differentiate&#44; providing a regenerative mechanism for damaged epithelial cells in the kidneys&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18&#44;19</span> The existence of these kidney epithelial progenitor cells provides a possible explanation for the regression of kidney lesions&#46; The damage repair process probably requires the capacity to slow the fibrotic response&#44; so progenitor cells should be able to regenerate tissue and&#44; at the same time&#44; prevent extracellular matrix accumulation<span class="elsevierStyleSup">18</span> by means of their capacity to secrete growth factors&#44; as will be detailed below&#46; In another study&#44; Appel et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">20</span> postulated that&#44; as podocytes have no self-renewal capacity&#44; the glomerular parietal epithelial cells &#40;which proliferate and are adjacent to the podocytes&#41; might migrate to the glomerular capillary and differentiate into podocytes&#46; Although several niches of renal stem cells have been identified&#44; it is still not known what their role is and how they behave in repairs after a kidney injury&#46; Still&#44; renal stem cells could be therapeutic targets for remodelling damaged kidney tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">21</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Bone marrow stem cells</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Bone marrow contains different types of stem cells&#44; including haematopoietic &#40;HSCs&#41; and mesenchymal &#40;MSCs&#41; stem cells and endothelial progenitor cells&#46; HSCs express surface markers such as Sca-1&#44; c-kit&#44; CD90 in mice&#44; and CD34&#44; CD133&#44; CXCR4 and CD150 in humans&#44; and can differentiate into any type of adult blood cell&#46; Besides creating a support environment for HSCs&#44; MSCs are able to differentiate into various types of mesenchymal cells such as bone&#44; cartilage&#44; muscle&#44; neurons&#44; hepatocytes and adipose tissue&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">22-25</span> They can adhere to plastic and express surface markers such as CD90&#44; CD73&#44; CD105&#44; CD44 and CD29&#46; MSCs also express growth factors such as VEGF&#44; HGF and IGF-1&#44; as well as antiapoptotic cytokines&#46; At present the role of marrow bone stem cells in the kidney regeneration after damage is being investigated&#46; Cell therapy is one of the fields of greatest interest in biomedicine at this time&#44; so much so that the use of these multipotent cells to re-establish damage organ function has generated remarkable expectation&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The most common technique for studying the plasticity of bone marrow cells is bone marrow transplantation &#40;BMT&#41;&#46; The receptor&#8217;s bone marrow cells are replaced by those of the donor and&#44; once chimerism is established&#44; the donor cells can be identified by different strategies&#46; Among these we can highlight the identification of the Y chromosome in a female receptor&#44; the expression of molecules such as beta-galactosidase&#44; luciferase or enhanced green fluorescent protein &#40;EGFP&#41;&#44; or a function being re-established in knockout animal model&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">26</span> To check the cell type &#40;tubular&#44; mesangial&#44; etc&#46;&#41; that the marrow bone cells have given rise to&#44; the use of specific protein staining with immunohistochemistry&#44; immunofluorescence and analysis with a confocal microscope are common&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">A significant number of glomerulopathies begin with podocyte injury or loss&#46; Podocytes are cells with complex interdigitations which participate in the synthesis of components of the glomerular basement membrane &#40;GBM&#41;&#44; collagen IV being one of the most important&#46; Several studies have suggested the integration of cells derived from bone marrow as functional podocytes&#46; Studies have been performed with mice models of Alport syndrome&#46; The mice had mutations in the gene which codifies for the alpha chain of the collagen IV&#44; bringing about defects in the GBM&#44; proteinuria and kidney failure&#46; Prodromidi et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">27</span><span class="elsevierStyleBold"> </span>and Sugimoto et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">28</span> observed that bone marrow cells contribute to the regeneration of podocytes in damaged glomeruli&#44; leading to the expression of the collagen IV alpha-3 chain being re-established and a decrease in proteinuria&#46; In a study with mice published a few years ago&#44; the BMT from obese diabetic db&#47;db mice in healthy non-diabetic mice transferred diabetic nephropathy to the receptor mice without them becoming hyperglycaemic&#46; The authors postulated that the glomerulus was probably repopulated by mesangial and endothelial cells from the db&#47;db donor mice and that these were responsible for the albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis that the receptor mice developed&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">29</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">On the other hand&#44; there are authors who suggest that bone marrow cells participate in renal regeneration by fusing with the renal cells themselves&#46; In fact&#44; studies in livers have shown that hepatocytes generated after liver damage are formed by cellular fusion&#44; and not by differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">30-32</span> Therefore&#44; a possible fusion between bone marrow stem cells and epithelial tubular cells is postulated&#46; Held et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">33</span> observed that&#44; after injury&#44; tubular epithelial cells are generated by the fusion of hematopoietic cells and existing proximal tubular cells&#44; and not by transdifferentiation&#46; However&#44; this is still a very controversial matter since several studies suggest a paracrine&#47;endocrine action of endogenous stem cells instead of direct repopulation of the damaged nephrons&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">34</span> In short&#44; besides the possible role of endogenous stem cells &#40;renal&#41;&#44; other studies support the idea of differentiation and&#47;or fusion of cells from bone marrow into precursor cells of damaged kidney cells &#40;figure 1&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">GROWTH FACTORS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Tubular epithelial cells which survive damage secrete growth factors which could interact with resident cells and renal and extrarenal stem cells&#44; accelerating tubular repair mechanisms&#46; The tubular epithelium exists in a relatively quiescent to slowly replicating state &#40;also a characteristic of stem cells&#41;&#44; but&#44; on the other hand&#44; it has a remarkable morphogenic regeneration capacity after severe toxic or ischemic aggression&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">35</span> Although some studies show how stem cells migrate to damaged tissue&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">36&#44;37</span> most authors do not support the idea of the integration of these cells into injured organs&#46; In this respect&#44; Duffield et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;38</span> showed that kidney repair is independent of the participation of cells derived from bone marrow&#44; something also observed by Lin et al&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">14</span> On the other hand&#44; Morigi et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">39</span> showed how the infusion of human mesenchymal cells from bone marrow led to a decrease in proximal tubular damage and improved kidney function in mice&#46; Several studies have been performed which have not been able to verify the differentiation of stem cells into epithelial cells&#44; but others have described how stem cells contribute to renal recovery&#46; Thus&#44; it was proposed that cell migration only facilitates regeneration because of an endocrine&#47;paracrine effect<span class="elsevierStyleSup">40&#44;41</span> and it is the kidney cells themselves that re-establish the tubular epithelium&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">13&#44;14&#44;38&#44;42</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Interaction between stem cells&#44; resident kidney cells and growth factors</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The interaction between mesenchymal and epithelial cells and growth factors is fundamental for nephrogenesis and for maintaining the integrity of adult organs&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">43&#44;44 </span>This reciprocated interaction between mesenchymal-epithelial cells is a key factor in renal regeneration after damage&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Studies using animal models of acute kidney injury have been performed administering growth factors such as epidermal growth factor &#40;EGF&#41;&#44; hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41; or insulin-like growth factor 1 &#40;IGF-1&#41;&#46; They observed a decrease in mortality due to kidney function being restored and normalised&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">45</span> In fact&#44; it is well known that tubular epithelial cells that survive damage secrete growth factors and cytokines involved in kidney repair mechanisms&#46; On the other hand&#44; it seems to have been proven that MSC have a protective effect&#44; especially in acute kidney injury models&#44; thanks to their ability to express growth factors such as VEGF&#44; HGF and IGF-1&#44; which facilitate recovery from kidney injury&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">46&#44;47</span> The mechanism of action of this system could have several modes&#58; autocrine &#40;the kidney cells themselves secrete growth factors&#41;&#44; paracrine &#40;renal and bone marrow stem cells&#41; and endocrine &#40;soluble circulating factors&#41;&#46; A brief review of some of these factors is given below&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic growth factor &#40;GDNF&#41;&#46;</span> This factor is involved in renal organogenesis&#46; The exogenous administration of GDNF protects against ischemic kidney injury in a mouse and accelerates repair mechanisms&#46; <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">In vitro</span>&#44; GDNF induces MSC migration and inhibits MSC apoptosis&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">48</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Epidermal growth factor &#40;EGF&#41;&#46;</span> This factor is synthesised in the renal epithelium and increases after kidney damage&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">49</span> It exerts different actions on several types of cells&#44; such as migration and proliferation&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">50&#44;51</span> EGF has been shown to induce cellular proliferation and MSC migration <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vitro&#46;</span><span class="elsevierStyleSup">52</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Hepatocyte growth factor &#40;HGF&#41;&#46;</span> &#160;It is a heterodimer consisting of 60-kDa alpha-chain and a &#160;34-kDa beta-chain&#46; The interaction of HGF and its c-Met receptor leads to the activation of the tyrosine kinase pathway&#44; giving rise to mitogenic and angiogenic activity in several types of cells&#44; particularly in epithelial and endothelial cells&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">55</span> Furthermore&#44; HGF has anti-apoptotic and antifibrotic effects&#46; The anti-apoptotic effect is directly related to the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase-Akt signal pathway&#44;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">56</span> while the antifibrotic effect is linked to its antagonist action on TGF beta-1&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">57</span>HGF modulates the balance between extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation&#44; increasing expression from matrix metalloproteases &#40;MMP&#41; and reducing production of MMP inhibitors &#40;TIMP&#41;&#46; Furthermore&#44; HGF suppresses the effect of TGF beta-1 by blocking the TGF beta&#47;Smad pathway&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">58</span> HGF is able to counteract the profibrotic action of TGF beta-1 in different renal cells through different mechanisms of action&#44; amongst which the inhibition of epithelium-mesenchyma transition stands out&#46; It is also known that TGF beta-1 and HGF inhibit each other&#39;s synthesis in a reciprocal fashion<span class="elsevierStyleSup">59</span> and that HGF also down-regulates the expression of TGF beta-1 receptors <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span>&#46; Some authors described a decrease in TGF beta-1 using an exogenous HGF supplement in several chronic damage models&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">60-62</span> It is worth pointing out that HGF also has an effect on bone marrow cells&#44; attracting stem cells to the site of the damage&#46; It is not known if HGF has a cellular mobilisation and&#47;or localisation effect on these cells&#46; In a study performed using a model of liver damage&#44; Kollet et al<span class="elsevierStyleSup">64</span> showed the effect of HGF on the recruitment of hematopoietic cells in liver damage&#46; When the liver is damaged &#40;by irradiation or inflammation&#41; there is an increase in the expression of SDF-1 and MMP-9 activity&#44; giving rise to the recruitment of hematopoietic progenitor cells mediated by SDF-1&#46; In another study performed using a mouse model of CCl<span class="elsevierStyleInf">4</span>-induced hepatic fibrosis<span class="elsevierStyleSup">65</span>&#44; it was observed that HGF per se did not increase the expression of MMP-9&#46; Treatment with G-CSF is used to promote the recruitment of cells from bone marrow&#46; Overexpression of HGF together with treatment with G-CSF synergistically increased MMP-9 in fibrotic liver while increasing the number of cells from bone marrow and liver cells expressing MMP-9&#46; In addition&#44; it is known that the inhibition of HGF activity leads to impaired tissue repair&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">57&#44;66</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">Vascular endothelial growth factor &#40;VEGF&#41;&#46; </span>This is a factor which regulates vascular growth both in normal and damaged tissue&#46; Mesenchymal cells can secrete this factor&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">67-69</span> Renal ischemia inhibits the expression of VEGF through diverse mechanisms&#44; shifting the balance from a proangiogenic to an antiangiogenic environment&#44; thus inhibiting kidney repair&#46; MSCs express VEGF and could exert a renoprotective&#44; paracrine action which facilitates recovery from acute kidney injury&#46; It has even been postulated that giving high doses of erythropoietin in a model of endothelial lesion attenuates the damage by liberating VEGF&#46;<span class="elsevierStyleSup">70</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">In short&#44; certain growth factors&#44; many of which are involved in renal embryogenesis&#44; are able to directly induce a certain degree of tissue repair&#44; while possibly acting on resident stem cells&#44; facilitating their differentiation and even contributing to the recruitment in the kidneys of stem cells from bone marrow which&#44; directly or through the secretion of growth factors&#44; play a part in renal regeneration &#40;figure 2&#41;&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">&#160;</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">KEY CONCEPTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The incidence of CKD continues to increase and many patients go on to develop TCKF despite the advances in renoprotection&#46; Because of this&#44; there is a huge interest in the study of renal regeneration mechanisms&#44; looking for future clinical applications&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Possible renal stem cell niches have been described in the renal papillae and the urinary pole of the Bowman&#8217;s capsule&#44; and tubular progenitor cells have also been observed&#46; It has not been proven irrefutably that stem cells from bone marrow differentiate and integrate <span class="elsevierStyleItalic">in vivo</span> like adult renal cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The niche of renal stem cells CD24&#43;CD133&#43; located in the urinary pole of the Bowman&#8217;s capsule in humans could contribute to tubular and podocyte regeneration&#46; Stem cells from bone marrow could theoretically differentiate into endothelial and mesangial cells&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">The injury repair process is achieved by slowing the fibrotic response first&#44; and then restoring the tissue architecture of the organ&#46; Administering certain growth factors&#44; at the same time as acting as an antifibrotic&#44; could mobilise stem cells from the kidney and bone marrow&#46; These cells facilitate renal regeneration by fusing with resident renal cells directly&#44; or through paracrine mechanisms&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara">&#160;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><span class="elsevierStyleBold">ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS</span></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">This research has been possible thanks to the ISCIII&#47;FIS P106&#47;0582 and PS09&#47;01630 grants&#46; Maria Flaquer has received an IDIBELL predoctoral grant&#46;</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7134&#95;en&#95;w477710372710463t1&#95;en&#46;doc" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7134&#95;en&#95;w477710372710463t1&#95;en&#46;doc</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Table 1&#46; - Participation of endogeneous &#40;renal&#41; or exogeneous &#40;from bone marrow&#41; stem cells in renal tissue regeneration</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7135&#95;en&#95;w477710372910463&#95;fig1&#95;en&#46;ppt" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7135&#95;en&#95;w477710372910463&#95;fig1&#95;en&#46;ppt</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 1&#46; Stem cells and renal renegeneration</p><p class="elsevierStylePara"><a href="10463&#95;108&#95;7136&#95;en&#95;w477710372810463&#95;figura&#95;2&#95;en&#46;ppt" class="elsevierStyleCrossRefs">10463&#95;108&#95;7136&#95;en&#95;w477710372810463&#95;figura&#95;2&#95;en&#46;ppt</a></p><p class="elsevierStylePara">Figure 2&#46; Growth factors and renal renegeneration</p>"
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        "resumen" => "<p class="elsevierStylePara">Cuando se produce un da&#241;o en un tejido adulto&#44; el proceso de renovaci&#243;n celular continuada es cr&#237;tico y crucial para la reparaci&#243;n del mismo y&#44; en determinados &#243;rganos&#44; se facilita por la presencia de c&#233;lulas madre o progenitoras&#46; El ri&#241;&#243;n&#44; a diferencia de otros &#243;rganos como el h&#237;gado&#44; es de regeneraci&#243;n lenta&#46; Incluso ha sido considerado durante a&#241;os como incapaz de regenerarse&#46; Sin embargo&#44; varios estudios han demostrado que existen posibles nichos de c&#233;lulas madre renales en la papila renal&#44; progenitores tubulares o progenitores renales CD24&#43;CD133&#43; localizados en el polo urinario de la c&#225;psula de Bowman&#46; Estas c&#233;lulas podr&#237;an participar te&#243;ricamente en la reparaci&#243;n de la lesi&#243;n renal&#46; Sin embargo&#44; todav&#237;a no se ha demostrado de forma precisa cu&#225;l ser&#237;a su papel ni c&#243;mo actuar&#237;an despu&#233;s del da&#241;o&#46; A&#250;n as&#237;&#44; estas c&#233;lulas madre renales podr&#237;an ser dianas terap&#233;uticas para el remodelado del tejido renal da&#241;ado&#46; Por otro lado&#44; se ha postulado que las c&#233;lulas madre derivadas de la m&#233;dula &#243;sea podr&#237;an participar en la regeneraci&#243;n renal&#44; especialmente las de estirpe mesenquimal&#46; Sin embargo&#44; tampoco se conoce con exactitud el modo en que actuar&#237;an&#46; Hay estudios que sugieren la existencia de fusi&#243;n celular entre estas c&#233;lulas y c&#233;lulas residentes&#44; otros apuntan a su diferenciaci&#243;n en c&#233;lulas renales&#44; mientras que otros sugieren una acci&#243;n paracrina responsable del efecto reparador a trav&#233;s de la secreci&#243;n de factores de crecimiento como HGF&#44; VEGF y IGF-1&#46; Todas estas mol&#233;culas secretadas proporcionar&#237;an un entorno regenerativo que limitar&#237;a el &#225;rea del da&#241;o y que facilitar&#237;a la migraci&#243;n de las c&#233;lulas madre&#46;</p>"
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